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National Implementation of Agenda 21
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Information Provided by the Government of UNITED REPUBLIC
OF TANZANIA to the United Nations Commission on Sustainable
Development
United Nations Department for Policy Coordination and
Sustainable
Development
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This country profile has been provided by:
Name of Ministry/Office:
Date: June 1997
Submitted by:
Mailing address:
Telephone:
Telefax:
E-mail:
Note from the Secretariat: An effort has been made to present all country profiles within a common format, with an equal number of pages. However, where Governments have not provided information for the tables appended to Chapters 4 and 17, those tables have been omitted entirely in order to reduce the overall length of the profile and save paper. Consequently, there may be some minor inconsistencies among the formats of the different country profiles.
All statistics are rendered as provided by the respective Governments.
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| APELL | Awareness and Preparedness for Emergencies at Local Level |
| CFC | chlorofluorocarbon |
| CGIAR | Consultative Group on International Agriculture Research |
| CILSS | Permanent Inter-State Committee on Drought Control in the Sahel |
| EEZ | exclusive economic zone |
| ECA | Economic Commission for Africa |
| ECE | Economic Commission for Europe |
| ECLAC | Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean |
| ELCI | Environmental Liaison Centre International |
| EMINWA | environmentally sound management of inland water |
| ESCAP | Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific |
| ESCWA | Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia |
| FAO | Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations |
| GATT | General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade |
| GAW | Global Atmosphere Watch (WMO) |
| GEF | Global Environment Facility |
| GEMS | Global Environmental Monitoring System (UNEP) |
| GEMS/WATER | Global Water Quality Monitoring Programme |
| GESAMP | Joint Group of Experts on the Scientific Aspects of Marine Pollution |
| GIPME | Global Investigation of Pollution in Marine Environment (UNESCO) |
| GIS | Geographical Information System |
| GLOBE | Global Legislators Organisation for a Balanced Environment |
| GOS | Global Observing System (WMO/WWW) |
| GRID | Global Resource Information Database |
| GSP | generalized system of preferences |
| HIV | human immunodeficiency virus |
| IAEA | International Atomic Energy Agency |
| IAP-WASAD | International Action Programme on Water and Sustainable Agricultural Development |
| IARC | International Agency for Research on Cancer |
| IBSRAM | International Board of Soil Resources and Management |
| ICCA | International Council of Chemical Associations |
| ICES | International Council for the Exploration of the Sea |
| ICPIC | International Cleaner Production Information Clearing House |
| ICSC | International Civil Service Commission |
| ICSU | International Council of Scientific Unions |
| IEEA | Integrated environmental and economic accounting |
| IFAD | International Fund for Agricultural Development |
| IGADD | Intergovernmental Authority for Drought and Development |
| IGBP | International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme (ICSU) |
| IGBP/START | International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme/Global Change System for Analysis, Research and Training |
| ILO | International Labour Organisation |
| IMF | International Monetary Fund |
| IMO | International Maritime Organization |
| INFOTERRA | International Environment Information system (UNEP) |
| IOC | Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission |
| IPCC | Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change |
| IPCS | International Programme on Chemical Safety |
| IPM | integrated pest management |
| IRPTC | International Register of Potentially Toxic Chemicals |
| ITC | International Tin Council |
| ITTO | International Tropical Timber Organization |
| IUCN | International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources |
| MARPOL | International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships |
| OECD | Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development |
| PGRFA | plant genetic resources for agriculture |
| PIC | prior informed consent procedure |
| SADCC | South African Development Co-ordination Conference |
| SARD | sustainable agriculture and rural development |
| UNCTAD | United Nations Conference on Trade and Development |
| UNDP | United Nations Development Programme |
| UNDRO | Office of the United Nations Disaster Relief Coordinator |
| UNEP | United Nations Environment Programme |
| UNESCO | United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization |
| UNFPA | United Nations Population Fund |
| UNICEF | United Nations Children's Fund |
| UNIDO | United Nations Industrial Development Organization |
| UNU | United Nations University |
| WCP | World Climate Programme (WMO/UNEP/ICSU/UNESCO) |
| WFC | World Food Council |
| WHO | World Health Organization |
| WMO | World Meteorological Organization |
| WWF | World Wide Fund for Nature (also called World Wildlife Fund) |
| WWW | World Weather Watch (WMO) |
In 1989, the General Assembly of the United Nations called for a global conference to devise strategies that would halt and reverse the negative impacts of anthropogenic activities on the environment and promote sustainable development. The United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, 3-14 June, 1992 fulfilled the mandate given to it by the General Assembly by adopting Agenda 21, which is a programme of action for sustainable development into the 21st century. The Rio Declaration on Environment and Development; and First Principles, a non - legally binding authoritative statement of principle for a global consensus on the management, conservation and sustainable development of all types of forests. Tanzania is aware of the inseparable relationship between economic development and the exploitation of natural resources. Our survival and that of future generations depends on our ability to manage our environment and its natural resources in such a way as to achieve growth and sustainable development. Sustainable development has therefore become a focal point as Tanzania endeavours to rid itself of poverty, ignorance, disease and other problems of underdevelopment. This report presents an overview of Tanzania's response to its development problems and the extent to which this response has been guided by the principles embodied in Agenda 21 since UNCED. Chapter 1 of the report is the introduction which covers the physiography of the country, the state of environment and general progress after Rio de Janeiro. Social and economic dimensions are covered in Chapter 2 which includes the structure of the economy, macroeconomic policies, environmental considerations in economic planning, combating poverty, protection and promoting human health and integration of environment and development in decision making. Chapter 3 is about population dynamics and sustainability. This chapter highlights population and poverty, population growth, population distribution, and population policy. The inseparable link between technology, the environment and sustainable development is highlighted in Chapter 4. This chapter covers the role of technology in sustainable development, and more specifically highlights activities in the industry sector, energy sector, agriculture sector and discusses capacity building and training. Conservation and management of natural resources is a key theme in sustainable development. In Chapter 5 we report on policies, programmes and activities in water resources, land, and forestry resources upon which the vast majority of people in Tanzania depend for their livelihood. Chapter 6 addresses an issue of great concern to much of sub-Saharan Africa: the threat of desertification. We report on land degradation, its contributory factors and actions to remedy the situation. Institutional arrangements for the integration of natural resource use and management are highlighted in Chapter 7. The important role of some of the major groups identified in Agenda 21 is highlighted in Chapter 8, while Chapter 9 is about legal instruments and mechanism and their role in the implementation by Tanzania of Agenda 21. In the concluding remarks in Chapter 10, an overview is given of the constraints in the way of achieving sustainable development and challenges that lie ahead. This is the first of regular reports and it is hoped, resource permitting, such reports will be issued annually with the primary objective of sharing experiences with other world nations as we search for sustainable solutions to our common concerns. The state of the environment Six major categories of environmental problems in the country have been identified. These problems include: i. land degradation; ii. lack of accessible, good quality water; iii. pollution; iv. loss of wildlife habitats and biodiversity; v. deterioration of aquatic systems; and vi. deforestation These problems impact negatively on the economy and well being of the people of Tanzania. The processes of land degradation are varied and may not be easily detected or measured. Its severity can be gauged from the red-brown colour of streams and in floods as the vital top-soil is washed away from upland areas. In other areas silting of dams and reservoirs and the bareness of the top soil in many fields are a manifestation of land degradation. The productivity of soils has been considerably reduced in many parts of Tanzania. Land degradation also results from the removal of woody vegetation especially when the rate of removal is higher than the rate of regeneration. Only 3.2 percent of Tanzania is covered by closed dense forests. The remainder of forests comprise mainly of miombo woodlands and large areas of thorn-bush. The need for more land for agriculture, increasing demand on fuelwood and charcoal, the demand for wood for tea drying and tobacco curing, and increased requirement of wood for rural and urban industries have created an unsustainable demand and supply situation. Pollution problems in the country include urban pollution, industrial pollution, rural pollution arising from agriculture, mining pollution and coastal pollution. Urban pollution is caused by poor sanitation, inadequate solid waste disposal, poor domestic and industrial effluent discharge and treatment, poor disposal and lack of treatment of industrial wastes, and emissions from industries. Environmental pollution in agriculture is mainly due to the use of agrochemicals, livestock drugs, and fertilizers. The pollution arises out of: improper handling and overuse of agrochemicals; the use of banned chemicals; improper disposal of chemical containers; chemical control of migratory pests; and control of weaver birds using toxic chemicals like fenthion. Bioinvention is an emerging environmental threat in the agricultural sector posing a major challenge to sustainable agricultural management and production. The water hyacinth (Eichloria crasipes) invasion of Lake Victoria and a number of dams, river courses and reservoirs is a serious environmental problem. Bioinvention in agriculture is also manifested in the introduction from elsewhere of pests of the type of the large grain borer (prostephanus tracuntus), cassava green mite, cassava mearly bug and banana black sigatoka. Aquatic resource for Tanzania include: marine and fresh water ecosystems, mangrove forests, coral reefs, seaweeds or grasses, wetlands, lakes and rivers. These resources provide the livelihood of a significant part of the population. They are also an important food source. They also contribute to the tourist industry. Concerns over aquatic resources in Tanzania arise because of such practices as environmentally destructive fishing using dynamite, excessive trawling, chemical poisoning, and use of small mesh size nets. The destruction of coral reefs which are critical habitats of marine organisms is a cause of great concern. Beach erosion, coastal pollution from oil spillage and sewage, and uncontrolled felling of mangroves are major environmental concerns. The extensive national parks, 'the Eastern Arc' mountains, wetlands, coastal forests, marine and fresh water systems as outstanding reservoirs of plant and animal species make Tanzania one of the world's greatest reservoirs of wildlife and biodiversity. Statistics indicate that of the 10,000 plant species so far recorded, over a quarter are endemic. Tanzania is also home to 31 endemic species of amphibians, 18 endemic species of lizards, 9 species of snakes, 10 bird species, forty percent of the world's wild coffee varieties, and about 80% of the famous African violet flowers. Tanzania is also a custodian of world heritage in the form of game reserves and national parks. The Selous Game Reserve, the Ngorongoro Crater and Serengeti National Park are World Heritage Sites. Lake Manyara National Park, the Ngorongoro Crate and Serengeti National Park have been designated as biosphere reserves. Land and natural resource use conflicts in buffer zones and poaching are major problems in this area.
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Compared to many countries, Tanzania is endowed with large water bodies, many rivers and moderate to good rainfall. However, the rainfall is seasonal and during the dry season water is scarce. The quality of the water leaves a lot to be desired. Incidence of water-related diseases are very common. In rural areas people use untreated water and in urban areas the water is poorly treated and contamination by poorly treated industrial discharges and sewage is not uncommon. Tanzania has for many years been host to refugees from neighboring countries. The border regions of Kigoma and Kagera have been severely affected by large concentrations of refugees from Rwanda, Burundi, and Zaire. Refugee-related environmental problems have had a negative impact on the quality of life of refugees and the host-population. Uncontrolled tree felling for firewood and construction, encroachment on arable agricultural land, pollution and overuse of water supplies, and poaching have seriously affected the ecosystems in Kigoma and Kagera. The government has documented the situation obtaining in the refugee-impacted areas. In addition the government has been working with the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) and other cooperating partners in order to mitigate the short term and long term impacts of the problem. Afforestation and reforestation as well as rehabilitation of infrastructure have been given priority. The government has also cooperated with the UNHCR in the drafting of environmental guidelines related to refugee situation.
General progress after Rio de Janeiro
During the 1992 United Nations Conference on the Environment and Development (UNCED) held in Rio de Janeiro, Tanzania, together with other countries made a declaration to abide by the principle of sustainable development based on the recognition that "the current generation should meet their needs without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their needs". Tanzania has taken concerted efforts to alleviate environmental concerns with a view to achieving sustainable development. Although progress in many areas remains slow, the Government is nevertheless engaged in a major exercise aimed at formulating or reviewing national policies for the sectors. Thus, the Planning Commission under the President's Office is charged with national development planning and economic management. The main function of the Planning Commission is economic management and coordination of development activities including integration of environmental concerns in development planning. At the central and local government levels, there are several line ministries and government departments whose work is of relevance to environment and sustainable development. There are also more than 100 non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and community based organizations (CBOs) which are involved in implementing programmes which relate to the environment and sustainable development. Academic institutions, the business community and professional associations are also involved in this task. Specific activities related to the commitment to environmental concerns at the national level include the finalization and endorsement of the National Environment Action Plan, which reflects the findings and recommendations of the National Conservation Strategy for Sustainable Development, and the drafting of a national environmental policy. Participation in these activities has included government agencies, the private sector, NGOs, local communities, and academia. Sectoral activities have included the preparation of a national mining sector environmental policy and action plan and the preparation of a national water resources assessment. The next phase will involve detailed studies of river basins to be followed by a synthesis of results and the preparation of a national water resources strategy, including support for small holder irrigation.
Tanzania has committed itself to implementing Agenda 21. Some
of the efforts in this direction include:
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1. Name of Key National Sustainable Development Coordination Mechanism(s)/Council(s). The Vice President's Office
Contact point (Name, Title, Office): Telephone: Fax: e-mail: Mailing address:
2. Membership/Composition/Chairperson:
2a. List of ministries and agencies involved: The Prime Minister's Office, the Ministry of Water, Energy and Minerals, the Ministry of Lands, Housing and Urban Development, the Ministry of Education and Culture, the Ministry of Science, Technology and Higher Education, the Ministry of Community Development, Women's Affairs and Children, the Ministry of Industry, and the Universities.
2b. Names of para-statal bodies and institutions involved, as well as participating of academic and private sector bodies:
2c. Names of non-governmental organizations involved:
3. Mandate role of above mechanism/council: The complexity of environmental problems is such that many sectors of the government and society are involved in actions to address them. The office of the Vice President is responsible for the Environment. The office, using the division of Environment, is responsible for the development of policy options, and coordination of the broad-based environmental programmes and projects. It is also responsible for facilitating meaningful involvement of the civil society in environmental activities. In particular the office is charged with the duties and responsibilities of environmental research, environmental policy making, environmental planning, environmental monitoring, and environmental coordination of both national and international environmental issues.
The strategic functions of the Office of the Vice President form the basis for effective inter-ministerial cooperation and coordination. Effective inter-ministerial cooperation and coordination has been underscored in the national environment policy and NEAP.
4. If available, attach a diagram (organization chart) showing national coordination structure and linkages between ministries:
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Economic reforms - Since 1985, the government of Tanzania has
implemented a number of policy reforms. The main
objective of the reforms have been and continues to be the
following:
These reforms are being implemented along side equally
significant political and social reforms. The following
measures have been instituted:
Decentralization of Government activities is being implemented
with the aim of transferring authority and functions to
lower levels of administration (districts), which are closer to the
people and therefore will be more effective and efficient
in the management of sustainable development activities.
Economic indicators
For agriculture (see chapter 14)
The major export cash crops are cotton and coffe. The
manufacturing industry accounts for about 17% of the foreign
exchange earnings, while the mining industry accounts for only 5%.
The foreign trade sector has recently shown some significant
improvements. The trade account deficit has improved.
This has been possible due to the implementation of macroeconomic
and budgetary measures, including the following:
The Gross Domestic Product (GDP) registered a growth rate of
3.9 percent in 1995, compared to 3.0 percent in
1994. Agriculture continues to contribute the largest share of
about 55 percent, with a growth rate of about 7 percent,
compared to 2 percent in 1994.
Tanzania is conscious of the possible widening of the income
gap as the economy recovers and grows. This and
other related issues are being addressed through consideration of
the social dimensions of the structural adjustment
programmes.
NATIONAL PRIORITY:
STATUS REPORT:
- to achieve economic growth;
- to reduce dependence on external balance of payment support;
- to reduce inflation;
- to improve social services and economic infrastructure;
- to alleviate, reduce and ultimately eradicate poverty; and
- to manage the ecosystem and use natural resources sustainably.
- introduction of a multi-party democracy;
- liberalization of most economic sectors;
- privatization of parastatals engaged in commercial production and
marketing - over 400 parastatals are to be restructured
or diversified, sold, leased, or made to enter joint venture
arrangements;
- reform of the financial sector;
- liberalization of the foreign exchange regime.
Current efforts focus on reforms of the public sector with the
objective of increasing government revenue through tax
reforms and improved management of revenue collection, and
reduction of the size of the civil service.
- reduction in tax remissions, in particular Investment Promotion
Centre (IPC) exemptions have been modified and limited
to capital goods only;
- establishment of the Tanzania Revenue Authority, which is now
responsible for revenue collection and tax
administration; and
- establishment of the "Inputs Revolving Fund" to encourage
agricultural production.
The budgetary measures are also aimed at realizing the
following broad policy objectives:
- achievement of a real GDP growth of 5 percent;
- generation of recurrent budget savings;
- reduction of the rate of inflation to below 10 percent; and
- reduction of Government indebtedness to the banking system.
AGENDA 21 CHAPTER 3: COMBATING POVERTY
Focus of national strategy
Highlight activities aimed at the poor and linkages to the
environment
Poverty is linked to environment in a complex way, particularly
for a natural resource-based economy. Degradation of
the resources reduces the productivity of the poor who mostly rely
on them and make the poor even more susceptible to
extreme events (climatic and economic). Poverty makes recovery from
such events even more difficult and contributes to
lowering social and ecological resistance. Poverty is also a factor
in accelerating environmental degradation in many parts
of the country, since the poor, with shorter time horizons and
usually less secure access to natural resources, are unable
and often unwilling to invest in natural resource management but
rather strive for existence in any way.
Poverty is a complex problem with both national and
international dimensions. The eradication of poverty and hunger,
equity in income distribution and human resource development remain
major challenges. As Agenda 21 proposes, in order
to combat poverty, sound population, health care, and education
policies must be put in place.
The government has since independence sought to combat poverty,
ignorance and hunger. To achieve this, various
strategies were launched including state intervention to reduce
economic and social inequalities in resource distribution and
control. Furthermore, mass mobilization was undertaken using
catch-phrases, such as:
"Freedom and Work" (Uhuru na Kazi) to extol the virtues of
work as a basis of development and self dignity as well as a
strategy to enhance employment opportunities;
"Politics is Agriculture" (Siasa ni Kilimo) to increase
rural incomes and ensure food security and to improve small holder
agriculture through better farm management practices and the use of
improved technologies;
"Life is Health" (Mtu ni Afya) to increase mass awareness
of the importance of health care and to catalyze community
action towards the provision of health care services;
"Universal Primary Education" (UPE) to promote primary education
and functional literacy in the adult population; and
"Modern Houses" (Nyumba Bora za Kisasa) to promote adequate
and decent housing for all.
These efforts, while inspiring, had some shortcomings mainly
because there was no coherent policy to provide
direction and guidance to stakeholders.
A policy on poverty eradication is under consideration. Its
overall goals, objectives and strategies are geared towards:
(i) creating an enabling environment for effective poverty
eradication;
(ii) empowering the poor to participate in poverty eradication
programmes;
(iii) ensuring full participation of women in poverty
eradication initiatives;
(iv) providing coordination mechanisms for the implementation of
poverty eradication initiatives; and
(v) promoting equality of opportunity for men and women to lead a
decent and productive life.
Besides the government, NGOs, CBOs and religious organizations
are playing an important role in eradicating poverty.
These organizations have been particularly active in the provision
of education at both primary and secondary level and
health care facilities. With respect to health care, for example,
about 49% of the hospitals in the country have been
constructed and are managed by voluntary organizations. The
contribution of the voluntary organizations in the
education sector is equally significant. Donor agencies have also
been active partners in the poverty eradication
endeavours.
A multi-focus approach to poverty alleviation and poverty
eradication is central to economic management. The need
to integrate poverty concerns and development requires effective
coordination and cooperation among all relevant organs
of Government, the business community, civil society and people. It
is in recognition of this important principle that a
department to coordinate efforts to combat poverty has been
created. The Poverty Alleviation Department is a division
in the Office of the Vice President. Tanzania does not yet have a
national definition of poverty. Indicators of poverty
are yet to be established. The above notwithstanding, combating
poverty is a critical element in the country's
development endeavour. In order to develop poverty indicators the
Government has launched a study on poverty
statistics.
NATIONAL PRIORITY:
STATUS REPORT:
The country still uses conventional measures as indicators of
national poverty. One such indicator is the per capita income,
and its changes, a measure which relates population and gross
domestic product (GDP) growth. However, this measure does not
lead to the estimation of the proportion of the population which
could be considered economically poor. Other indicators of
national poverty include the rate of employment, dependence on
external assistance in financing development, etc. According to
the National Economic Survey for 1995 published in June, 1996, the
per capita income was estimated to be Tshs. 5890 in 1995
at 1985 prices, having increased from Tshs. 4919 in 1985.
Employment is an important avenue of earning income among the
population. Employment opportunities have been limited in
the recent past due to the slow growth of the economy, and the
freezing of new recruitment in the public sector. Employment
opportunities in the informal sector have increased in the recent
past. An analysis of the city of Dar es Salaam Informal sector
Survey undertaken in 1995 indicates that this sector provides
employment to about 65 percent of the city's labour force.
Per Capita Income Annual
Change (%)
Estimated Population Growth
Rate (%)
AGENDA 21 CHAPTER 4: CHANGING CONSUMPTION PATTERNS
National policy objectives/focus
National targets
Energy sector
In the energy-sector a number of actions and programmes relevant to
Agenda 21 have been initiated. They include, among
others:
I. The National Energy policy
The main objectives of the policy are:
- more efficient use of energy in the transport and industry
sectors;
II. Power sector efficiency improvements
In the power sub-sector a number of technological options have
been proposed for implementation. These include:
increase the efficiency of the presently installed equipment and
retrofitting the thermal power plants to improve their
combustion efficiencies; retiring the less efficient plants in
favour of more efficient ones and institution of demand side
management; institution of fuel switching, e.g. change from
industrial diesel oil to natural gas where feasible; and
development of renewable energy sources, such as hydro, wind,
biomass and solar energy.
A survey of 20 selected industries to investigate the
relationship between production and electricity costs and
sensitivity of production costs to changes in electricity tariff
has been implemented by the Tanzania Industrial Research
Organization (TIRDO).
Walk-through audits, semi-detailed audits, full energy audits
for a total of 41 industries have also been implemented
by TIRDO. These activities have been sponsored by the United
Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO),
the Tanzania Investment Bank (TIB) and the World Bank.
NATIONAL PRIORITY:
STATUS REPORT:
* to establish an efficient energy production, procurement,
transportation, distribution, and end-use system in an
environmentally sound manner through the following:
- exploitation of the abundant hydro-electric resources;
- development and utilization of natural gas resources;
- development and utilization of the coal resources;
- increased petroleum exploration activities arresting wood fuel
depletion by developing more appropriate land
management practices and more efficient woodfuel use technologies;
- development and utilization of forest and agricultural residue
for power and cooking energy production;
- minimisation of energy price fluctuations;
- development of human resources for development of energy
technologies;
- ensuring the continuity and security of energy supplies.
* strategies for implementing the policy include:
- rehabilitation of the electric power generation, transmission and
distribution infrastructure;
- rehabilitation and rationalization of petroleum refining, storage
and distribution infrastructure;
- promotion of alternative energy sources;
- development and dissemination of efficient woodfuel conversion
and utilization technologies;
- development and dissemination of simple and affordable kerosene
stoves for rural and urban households.
Taka is a Swahili word for waste and Takagas is therefore gas
from waste. The goal of the Takagas project is to reduce
emissions of greenhouse gases (GHG) in Tanzania by substituting
bioenergy (methane gas and electricity), produced from
anaerobic digestion of industrial and municipal waste in the Dar es
Salaam area, for fossil fuels. Additional greenhouse gas
reduction will be achieved by reducing the uncontrolled release of
methane from improperly disposed organic waste, and
organic fertilizer will be produced. The plant will have a capacity
to treat about 57 tonnes of organic waste per day, or about 3
percent of the daily waste generated in Dar es Salaam. The project
combines methane emission reduction for GHG mitigation,
with production of electricity, fuel for transport and fertilizer.
The installed capacity of the biogas plant will be 1 MW. The
project is being funded by the Global Environmental Facility (GEF)
and the Danish Development Assistance (DANIDA). This
project is a collaborative effort of the Ministry of Energy and
Minerals, the Dar es Salaam City Council and the University of
Dar es Salaam.
III. Takagas project (energy from waste)
AGENDA 21 CHAPTER 5: DEMOGRAPHIC DYNAMICS AND SUSTAINABILITY
It must be noted that the national census is the main source of
population information in Tanzania as the
country does not yet have reliable records of births and deaths,
nor data on migratory movements. The current
population growth rate is 2.8 percent per year. There are marked
differential regional rates of population growth.
Generally regional population growth rates are high, above 2.0
percent per year, with the exception of Mtwara.
A number of regions have growth rates higher than 3.0 per cent per
year. These include Dar es Salaam, Rukwa,
Arusha, Ruvuma and Mbeya. It should be observed that with the
exception of Iringa, Mara, and Coast regions,
the growth rates of all other regions declined in 1978/88 when
compared with the 1967/78 inter-censual period.
At the national level, population growth is mainly due to
natural increase - i.e. the differences between births
and deaths. The decline of the national rate of population growth
is supported by findings of the Tanzania
Demographic and Health Survey (1991/92) and the Tanzania Knowledge,
Attitude and Practices Survey (1994), as
shown in the Table 3.2
CBR = Crude Birth Rate
The population of Tanzania depicts a typical young age
structure, with about 46 percent of its total population
below age 15; 50 percent between the ages of 15 and 64 years; and
only 4.3 percent of the total population being
65 years and older. The implication of this age structure becomes
even more important when the proportion of the
young population (i.e. population aged 15 - 24 years) is added to
the proportion of the population below age 15
years. The proportion of young people increases to about 66 percent
of the total population.
Age dependency ratios indicate the estimated number of people
supported by one hundred in the working age
group 15 - 64 years. The dependency ratio for Tanzania is
relatively high because more than 100 persons are
being supported by 100 workers. The younger age group is the main
contributor to the high dependency ratio in
Tanzania. This has implications for the social services needs of
this population, especially the provision of
education and health care. Due to limited opportunities for
schooling beyond primary education, provision of
employment to the youth is also a major problem.
NATIONAL PRIORITY:
STATUS REPORT: Population
Growth: In 1995 the population of Tanzania was estimated to be
28.9 million.
The population has more than doubled since 1967 when it was 12.3
million. Comparable figures for the 1978 and
1988 census were 17.5 million and 23.1 million, respectively. Fig.
3.1 shows the population size of Tanzania
since 1948.
TFR = Total Fertility Rate
Population Distribution: Population distribution is the
spread of the population within an area available to them for
exploitation. The 28.9 million people living in Tanzania in 1995
occupied a total land of 885,987 square Kilometers.
Table 3.3 shows a relatively unevenly distributed population
over the land area, with about 54 percent of the total population
occupying 25 percent of the total land.
Another implication of the broad based young population
structure of Tanzania is that more and more persons enter child
bearing age every year, with the attendant increase of births
annually and thus perpetuating the high growth rate of the
population.
| Dar | |||
| Zanzibar | |||
| Mwanza | |||
| Kilimanjaro | |||
| Mtwara | |||
| Kagera | |||
| Tanga | |||
| Mara | |||
| Shinyanga | |||
| Donoma | |||
| Mbeya | |||
| Kigoma | |||
| Iringa | |||
| Coast | |||
| Morongo | |||
| Arusha | |||
| Singida | |||
| Tabora | |||
| Ruvuma | |||
| Rukwa | |||
| Lindi | |||
| Tanzania |
| Rural-urban population distribution:
Historically, development has been associated with the
urbanization of society. In
Tanzania, for example, the proportion of the population in the
rural area has been decreasing over time. Before independence,
the proportion was 97%. It decreased to 95% in 1965, 85% in 1978
and 75% in 1988. It is anticipated that this proportion will
decrease further by the year 2000. This population growth trend is
linked to rural-to-urban migration. Even with this growth in urbanization, Tanzania is still one of the least urbanized countries in Africa. The main features of population distribution are:
Population distribution and, in particular the urban and rural spread, will be an important factor in Tanzania's development beyond the year 2000.
Population growth and sustainability: The population involved in agriculture has traditionally settled in areas suitable for crop production and mixed farming. Indigenous knowledge of trees and grasses as indicator of land suitability was used. Today, rainfall and soil fertility are still decisive factors governing population distribution and density. About 10% of the country receives adequate rain (over 1000 mm per annum) and carries 60% of the population; 8% is fairly well watered and carries 18% of the population; 20% is poorly watered and carries 18% of the population; and 62% is poorly watered and carries 1% of the population. Thus about four fifths of Tanzania's population today is concentrated on only one fifth of its land.
The rapid population growth is an environmental concern because
of several reasons which include, among others:
Population policy: Tanzania adopted a National Population Policy (NPP) in 1992. The policy recognizes that there is no simple cause and effect relationship between population growth and economic growth, and that population growth may not be the primary obstacle to development. Nevertheless, it is appreciated that a high population growth rate aggravates the difficult economic situation and renders remedial measures more difficult. At the macro level, a rapid and high population growth rate results in increased outlays on private and public consumption, drawing resources away from savings for productive investment. The NPP spells out as its principal objective, the reinforcement of national development through exploiting available resources to improve the quality of life of the people, with special emphasis on regulating population growth rate, enhancing the quality of life, and improving the health and welfare of women and children.
The NPP underscores the following:
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1. Decision-Making Structure: No information
2. Capacity-Building/Technology Issues: No information
3. Major Groups: No information
4. Finance: No information
5. Regional/International Cooperation: No information
Latest 199_ Population (Thousands)
mid-year estimates
Annual rate of increase (1990-1993)
Surface area (Km2)
Population density (people/Km2)
Other data
AGENDA 21 CHAPTER 6: PROTECTING AND PROMOTING HUMAN HEALTH
The Constitution of the Republic of Tanzania was amended in 1984 to
provide for the Bill of Rights. One of the provisions
of the Bill of Rights is article 14 which stipulates that every
person has a right to life and to the protection of his life by
the society. The High Court in a landmark ruling in the case of
Festo Balegele v. Dar es Salaam City Council, (Misc.
Civil Case No. 90, 1991) interpreted this Article to mean that
persons are entitled to a healthy environment, and held that
the City's decision to cite the garbage dump near residential areas
violated plaintiffs constitutional rights to a healthy
environment.
One of the obligations given to governments include the building of
basic health infrastructures, paying particular attention
to the provision of safe water and food supplies, sanitation
services, proper nutrition, health education, immunization and
essential drugs. The government of Tanzania is implementing the
Health Sector Reform Action Plan which aims at:
* devolution of more authority to the public by creation of
District Health Boards and Hospital Boards which will be
responsible for planning and administering health services at
district level;
* strengthening strategies on funding mechanisms in health
services through contributions from the government, the
public and donors;
At the district level, the Ministry of Health in collaboration with
donors is implementing a pilot project in Morogoro (R)
and the Rufiji District entitled "Tanzania Essential Health
Interventions Project" which has the following objectives:
* to design a better system of preparing district plans for
cost-effective interventions to reduce the burden of disease in
the community.
In addition, the Ministry of Health is implementing the various
programmes to curb communicable diseases including
cholera, malaria, schistomiasis and diarrhoea diseases. There are
also plans to reduce HIV infection levels and
implementation of family planning programmes.
AIDS seems to be a factor that is likely to affect population
growth as well as increase poverty, leading to reduced
environmental quality. According to recent studies its impact on
slowing population growth is generally projected to be
insignificant due to the current high level of fertility; however,
this impact could become severe if the epidemic spreads
more rapidly than is considered likely, and if mortality from other
diseases were exacerbated as a result of the HIV
epidemic.
NATIONAL PRIORITY:
STATUS REPORT: Development activities affect
the environment in a way that often trigger or augment health
problems. Chapter 6 of Agenda 21 addresses issues of protecting and
promoting human health. In addition Agenda 21
contains proposals which focus on achieving primary health care
needs, controlling communicable diseases, coping with
urban health problems, reducing heath risks from environmental
pollution and protecting vulnerable groups such as
infants, women, indigenous peoples and the very poor.
* monitoring the implementation of health projects and
services;
* strengthening the system of acquiring medicines and technical
facilities.
* to assess the cost of initiating various health services based
on cost- benefit analysis to the public.
* to consider policies, plans and implementation so as to realize
the actual needs for health services at the district level.
AGENDA 21 CHAPTER 7: PROMOTING SUSTAINABLE HUMAN SETTLEMENT DEVELOPMENT
The government has also reoriented policy reforms towards increased
allocation of resources to the social sector. Basic
social services including primary education, primary health care,
nutrition, and rural water supply will benefit from this
move. The government has also introduced cost sharing measures as
a way of ensuring full participation by the
beneficiaries in the sustainable provision of the services. High
priorities are being accorded to the supply of water and
sanitation services to rural and urban areas. However, success in
this sector is hampered by the high investment,
operational and maintenance costs.
Urban services are still in a very poor state. There has been a
rapid deterioration of the existing infrastructure and
extensive erosion of the level of services available to the rapidly
increasing urban population. It is the intention of the
government to prepare an urban management service delivery and
infrastructure investment policy aimed at creating an
effective institutional and financial framework for operating a
sustainable service delivery system in urban centers.
Already municipalities have been given a greater voice in the
management of infrastructure. In the water sector this is
being done through the establishment of urban water and sanitation
boards. At least six such boards are now operational.
NATIONAL PRIORITY:
STATUS REPORT:
AGENDA 21 CHAPTER 8: INTEGRATING ENVIRONMENT AND
DEVELOPMENT IN DECISION-MAKING
| NATIONAL PRIORITY: | |
| STATUS REPORT:
Constitutional provisions The Constitution of the Republic of Tanzania was amended in 1984 to provide for the Bill of Rights. One of the provisions of the Bill of Rights is article 14 which stipulates that every person has a right to life and to the protection of his life by the society. The High Court in a landmark ruling in the case of Festo Balegele v. Dar es Salaam City Council, (Misc. Civil Case No. 90, 1991) interpreted this Article to mean that persons are entitled to a healthy environment, and held that the City's decision to cite the garbage dump near residential areas violated plaintiffs constitutional rights to a healthy environment. In addition, Article 9 of the Constitution requires the Government to ensure that national resources are harnessed, preserved and applied toward the common good. Although this Article is part of the non-justiceable "fundamental objective and directive principles of the state policy" provisions of the Constitution, it portrays the commitment of the Government in ensuring sustainable development.
Environmental consideration in economic planning Until recently environmental issues were the responsibility of sectoral ministries. However, with the growing awareness of the cross cutting and complex nature of environmental issues, their importance and severity, institutional structures and strategies are changing towards cross-sectoral coordination. In line with this new thinking the government is currently reviewing all sectoral policies to ensure that they are consistent with the current macro-economic reforms and the national environmental policy. The underlying premises of the sectoral policy reviews are:
- the need to balance accelerated economic growth with more
efficient and sustainable use of the environment and natural
resources; The mining sector policy is aimed at creating an enabling environment for investors in the sector. Specifically, the government intends to revise the legal framework related to mining in order to increase consistency and transparency. In this regard the following legislation is being revised: the Mining Act of 1979; the Income Tax Act of 1973; and the Investment Promotion Act of 1991. The Model Mineral Agreement is also being reviewed. Mineral licensing procedures are being streamlined. The divestiture of the public mining companies and re-organization of the State Mining Company (STAMICO) is also underway. The environmental impacts of the mining sector are to be addressed through the Mining Sector Environmental Action Plan. To be included in the Plan are health, safety and environmental regulations. The agricultural sector development has been undertaken with the objective of increasing the production of food and cash crops in order to improve food security, generate foreign exchange, supply domestic industries with raw materials, and raise rural income levels to alleviate poverty. Short term policies in this sector have focused on removing price distortions and minimizing losses due to inefficiencies in marketing and in process industries, respectively. Direct involvement and control of the agricultural sector by the government has been reduced. Emphasis is being put on research and extension services.
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| The Government has also reoriented policy reforms
towards increased allocation of resources to the social sector.
Basic
social services including primary education, primary health care,
nutrition, and rural water supply will benefit from this move.
The government has also introduced cost sharing measures as a way
of ensuring full participation by the beneficiaries in the
sustainable provision of the services. High priorities are being
accorded to the supply of water and sanitation services to rural
and urban areas. However, success in this sector is hampered by the
high investment, operational and maintenance costs. Rehabilitation of infrastructure has also been accorded high priority. The Integrated Roads Programme (IRP) has made remarkable progress in the rehabilitation of major roads in the country. The Government intends to strengthen this activity through improvement of the organizational, management, and financial arrangements for the sector. Divestiture plans are underway for the regional transport companies, and the Plant and Equipment Hire Company. Competition is being promoted through encouragement of private sector participation in the transport sector. Urban services are still in a very poor state. There has been a rapid deterioration of the existing infrastructure and extensive erosion of the level of services available to the rapidly increasing urban population. It is the intention of the government to prepare an urban management service delivery and infrastructure investment policy aimed at creating an effective institutional and financial framework for operating a sustainable service delivery system in urban centers. Already municipalities have been given a greater voice in the management of infrastructure. In the water sector this is being done through the establishment of urban water and sanitation boards. At least six such boards are now operational. In order to establish an efficient energy production, procurement, transportation, distribution and end-use system and in an environmentally sound manner, the Government intends to exploit the abundant hydroelectric potential and to develop other indigenous energy sources such as natural gas, coal and petroleum in collaboration with the private sector. The power sector is being restructured. Private participation in investment in the Songo Songo natural gas project is a precursor to wider private sector participation in the energy sector. Tanzania is conscious of the possible widening of the income gap as the economy recovers and grows. This and other related issues are being addressed through consideration of the social dimensions of the structural adjustment programmes. Poverty alleviation is being addressed in the context of the national policy on poverty and related income generation programmes. The National Population Policy addresses the issue of population growth and sustainable development.
Coordination of Environmental Issues The Vice President's Office The Complexity of environmental problems is such that many sectors of the government and society are involved in actions to address them. The office of the Vice President is responsible for the Environment. The office, using the Division of Environment, is responsible for the development of policy options, and coordination of the broad-based environmental programmes and projects. It is also responsible for facilitating meaningful involvement of the civil society in environmental activities. In particular the office is charged with the duties and responsibilities of environmental research, environmental policy making, environmental planning, environmental monitoring, and environmental coordination of both national and international environmental issues. The strategic functions of the Office of the Vice President form the basis for the effective inter-ministerial cooperation and coordination. Effective inter-ministerial cooperation and coordination has been underscored in the National Environment Policy and NEAP. The Vice President's office, through the Division of Environment is implementing a capacity building project. Activities under the project include: preparation of a national framework environmental legislation; preparation of environmental impact assessment guidelines; training of personnel; follow-up of activities in the implementation of international conventions; support for meetings and conferences; as well as purchase of office supplies and equipment. The project is being funded by the Norwegian Agency for Development Cooperation. (NORAD) and UNDP.
The National Environment Management Council (NEMC) The National Environment Management Council was established by an Act of Parliament in 1983 to advise Government in the field of environment. It serves as a think-tank for the Government, undertakes environmental information generation, assembly and exchange.
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| A number of activities with respect to Agenda 21 have been
undertaken by NEMC. These include the following: * Pollution prevention and control: (see chapter 9) * Environmental education and public awareness (see chapter 36) * Natural Resource conservation and management: The following activities fall under this broad category: preparation of the national marine contingency plan; inventory of destructive activities to the aquatic environment; wetlands inventory and management; inventory of natural resources and environmental related projects; environmental impact assessment (EIA) reviews; and assessment of community participation in natural resource management.
Activities undertaken by sectoral ministries Apart from the Vice President's Office and NEMC many government ministries have been undertaking activities relevant to the implementation of Agenda 21. The complexity and inter-relatedness of the environmental problems have necessitated the involvement of almost every sector in environmental protection. The Government institutions and ministries which have been more directly involved in the implementation of Agenda 21 are the Prime Minister's Office, the Planning Commission, the Ministry of Agriculture, the Ministry of Water, Energy and Minerals, the Ministry of Lands, Housing and Urban Development, the Ministry of Education and culture, the Ministry of Science, Technology and Higher Education, the Ministry of Community Development, Women Affairs and Children, the Ministry of Industries and Trade, and the Universities.
Decentralization Sustainable natural resource management depends on an enabling environmental law that provides a wider spectrum for different stakeholders to participate. As such it is now becoming increasingly apparent that the "centralization" of environmental management may not be the proper institutional arrangement. Most environmental problems have a bearing on where the majority of people live, whether in rural or urban areas. Local authorities, therefore, stand a better chance of managing the local environment by overseeing the planning processes, establishing local environmental policies and regulations and enforcing them. Community based natural resource management is cost effective and participatory in character. The Government, with assistance of the United States Aid for International Development (USAID), will support a five year project on Participatory Environment and Natural Resources Management which will explore the best ways of involving local stakeholders in managing the environment.
Integrating environment and development in decision making National Environmental Policy The National Environmental Policy provides a framework for making fundamental changes that are needed to bring environmental considerations into the mainstream of decision making in Tanzania. It also seeks to provide policy guidelines and plans and gives guidance to the determination of priority actions, for monitoring and regular review of policies, plans and programmes. It further provides for sectoral and cross-sectoral policy analysis thus exploiting synergies among sectors and interest groups. The overall objectives of the National Environmental Policy are therefore to ensure sustainable and equitable use of resources without degrading the environment or risking health or safety; to prevent and control degradation of land, water, vegetation, and air which constitute our life support systems; to conserve and enhance our natural and man-made heritage, including the biological diversity of the unique ecosystems of Tanzania; to improve the condition and productivity of degraded areas including rural and urban settlements in order that all Tanzanians may live in safe, productive and aesthetically pleasing surroundings; to raise public awareness; to promote individual and community participation; and to promote international co-operation. The National Environmental Policy also provides for the execution of a range of strategic functions using policy instruments such as environmental impact assessments, environmental legislation, economic instruments and environmental standards and indicators. A framework is also provided for institutional arrangements and coordination. The role of major groups such as NGOs, CBOs and private sector is underscored. Capacity building and human resource development are emphasized.
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| The National Environmental Action Plan The National Environmental Policy provides a unifying set of principles and objectives for an integrated and multi-sectoral approach to address the totality of the environment. With the enunciation of the Policy, the main challenge is to ensure that all sectors and interest groups take priority actions in such a manner that their actions are mutually supportive. It is in this regard, therefore, that an action plan has been developed as a first step towards the incorporation of environmental concerns in the national development planning process. The National Environmental Action Plan (NEAP) seeks, among other things, to:
- integrate the environmental policy and the conservation strategy
into the planning process;
The National Environmental Legislation Compilation and evaluation of sectoral environmental laws were undertaken by the Division of Environment. A national workshop on the formulation of a framework environmental legislation and review of sectoral laws was held in September 1995. Workshop proceedings have been prepared, as well as a project proposal for the formulation of a framework environmental legislation and review of sectoral laws. Efforts are underway to secure funds to support the preparation process.
Legal Instruments and Mechanisms An overview of environmental law and institutions The country's major sources of law include: the common law, principles of equity, statutes of general application, Islamic law in some instances, customary law, international conventions to which Tanzania is a party, constitutional law, principal and subsidiary and case law. The management of the environment in Tanzania has been undertaken on the basis of a plethora of laws and regulations. Almost the whole corpus of environmental law is statutory based. Few cases have been decided on the basis of these laws. However, the common law of torts on nuisance and negligence are applicable in Tanzania. It should be noted, however, that much of the existing environmental legislation is outdated. Furthermore, since these laws are widely scattered, their enforcement (or non-enforcement) has often led to conflicts between different government departments, thus undermining their effectiveness. Legislation aimed at regulating use and management of natural resources has evolved along sectoral lines, governing specific environmental media.
Challenges Agenda 21, in sections 8, 38, 39 and 40, stresses the importance of enhancing the local capacities for sustainable development in developing countries. National environmental legislation and the related institutions form the nucleus in the building of capacity to deal with challenges of sustainable development. The first tangible results of NEAP have been the drafting of an environmental law and policy. In addition, and as mentioned earlier on, a number of sector policies and legislation are currently under review. One of the challenges facing Tanzania is that of taking necessary legislative steps to ensure sustainable development. Of late, the country's environment has been heavily affected by the influx of refugees from Rwanda, Burundi and Zaire. Again, important aspects like air pollution and environmental disaster preparedness are virtually under-legislated. The existing legal framework was not molded to absorb such challenges.
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Section 8 of Agenda 21 is on policy-making for sustainable development. The section recognizes that country specific laws are among the major important instruments for transforming environment and development policies into action, not only through "command and control" methods but also as a framework for economic planning and market instruments. Major constraints facing environmental management in Tanzania include the lack of capacity to enforce environmental laws and lack of working tools. Tanzania has a number of other statutes. Although sometimes referred to as environmental laws, they are actually resource exploitation statutes. These include the Mining Act (1979), Fisheries Act (1974), Water Utilization and Control Act (1974) and the Forest Ordinance (1959). All these Acts are currently under review to reflect sustainable utilization of resources governed by them. The challenge ahead is to incorporate into these laws the requisite institutional machinery and enforcement authority including effective judicial procedures, compliance with international agreements and to ensure their periodic review. The government will also try to direct fiscal and economic policies to reflect environmental costs in the daily decision making processes.
Current efforts to revise environmental management The Government of Tanzania has taken important strides to address environmental problems through policy, programme and the legislative framework. In March, 1993 the then Ministry of Tourism, Natural Resources and Environment held a workshop on the national programme for the implementation of Agenda 21 and a plan of action. One of the important resolutions of the workshop was that in order to implement all proposed programmes in the Agenda 21, the existing legal framework must be evaluated, and where necessary strengthen or changed.
The following programme areas were identified as requiring an
integrated legal framework:
The Division of Environment is now working on a new
comprehensive environmental legislation. Individual sectors have
also taken the challenge of initiating reforms in policies and laws
relating to sustainable development and environment.
Examples include: Investment regulation The bill to enact the Tanzania Investment Act, 1997 is under consideration by Parliament. The bill stipulates that one of the functions of the Investment Promotion Center (IPC) shall be that of liaising with appropriate bodies of agencies to ensure that investment projects use environmentally sound technologies and will restore, preserve and protect the environment. This important step will ensure that the IPC vets the unscrupulous investors who may want to maximize profits at the expense of the environment.
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1. Decision-Making Structure (please also refer to the fact
sheet): (see Status Report)
2. Capacity-Building/Technology Issues: (see Status
Report)
3. Major Groups: (see Status Report)
4. Finance: (see Status Report)
5. Regional/International Cooperation: (see Status
Report)
AGENDA 21 CHAPTER 9: PROTECTION OF THE ATMOSPHERE
The Montreal Protocol and its Amendments
The Montreal Protocol (1987) was acceded to by Tanzania on 16
April, 1993 (including the London Amendment of
1990 to the Protocol)
The Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer was
acceded to by Tanzania on 7 April, 1993.
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
UNFCCC was signed on 12 June 1992, and ratified on 1 March
1996.
In order to fulfill the obligations of the Convention, various
studies have been undertaken by the Centre for Energy,
Environment, Science and Technology (CEEST) on behalf of the
Tanzania Government. An inventory of emissions by
source and removal by sinks of greenhouse gases in the country
based on 1990 data has been completed. A study on the
technological and other options for the mitigation of greenhouse
gases in Tanzania has also been completed. A study to
assess the vulnerability and adaptation to climate change,
including the impact of climate change to agriculture, grassland
and livestock as well as forestry, water, coastal resources and
health is being implemented. A National Action Plan on
Climate Change in Tanzania is under development.
Additional comments relevant to this chapter
Pollution prevention and control: Activities in this area
include: promotion of awareness to users of chemicals in Lake
Zone Regions; training of NEMC staff on data base formulation and
analysis on pollution levels and control; preparation
of environmental standards for water and air; and industrial
pollution monitoring programmes in lake regions, Morogoro
and Dar es Salaam. These activities are funded by SIDA.
NATIONAL PRIORITY:
STATUS REPORT:
AGENDA 21 CHAPTER 10: INTEGRATED APPROACH TO THE PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT OF LAND RESOURCES
Land degradation
Land degradation is reducing the productivity of soils in many
parts of Tanzania. Soil loss has been measured in
Shinyanga region over a long time period. Rates in the 1970's were
twice the rates of the early 1960's (105 tons/ha/year,
1960 - 1965; 224 tons/ha/year, 1970 - 1980). Measurements in
Dodoma, Morogoro and Arusha regions suggest similar
high rates of soil loss.
Contributing factors towards land degradation
A number of factors contribute to land degradation. These
include, among others: inappropriate cultivation techniques; a
growing population; growing energy requirements; over stocking; and
insecure land tenure. In the densely populated
highland areas, the average farm size has decreased. In some areas,
stocking rates have risen well beyond the carrying
capacity of the rangelands.
- Expansion for agriculture: This has often taken the form
of shifting cultivation which is detrimental to vegetation.
Traditionally, farmers in Tanzania practice shifting cultivation or
"slash and burn" agriculture. Under this system a family
can grow crops on the same plot of land for two to three years only
and must then move on to another plot, leaving the
previous one to lie follow. Due to population pressure, however,
the long periods of fallow with short periods of farming
have been replaced by long periods of farming with short fallow
periods. This practice does not allow sufficient time for
revegetation and recovery of soil fertility. As a result, large
tracts of land have lost their vegetation cover and are exposed
to further degradation through soil erosion, infestation by weeds,
pests and diseases. This decrease in yields often makes
the clearing of more virgin forest land more necessary. Shifting
cultivation has also resulted in encroachment of natural
forest reserves.
- Overgrazing: About half of the land area of Tanzania can
be categorized as grazing land, but 60% of this is tsetse fly
infested. Livestock is therefore concentrated in the semi-arid
savanna areas of north and central Tanzania, where grasses
are associated with widely scattered shrubs and stunted trees. Two
fifths of the livestock population is concentrated in
Arusha, Shinyanga and Mwanza regions, which account for only one
fifth of the human population. In many regions the
livestock population far exceeds the carrying capacity of the land.
In Shinyanga, especially Meatu district, and Mbulu in
Arusha region, the excess is reported to be over 200%.
Land Management
Tanzania is characterized by a very unstable land tenure
system. However, in 1995, the new Land Policy was adopted.
The policy addresses the challenges facing the land-based
environment like wetlands, valleys, migration corridors and
buffer zones. Pastoral tenure is also articulated in the Policy.
The Ministry responsible for lands is working on translating
this policy into legislation.
Land use
Most of human activities are land based. For sustainable and
systematic utilization of land and landbased natural
resources, a land policy is essential. It is in this regard
therefore, that the National Land Policy was adopted in 1995. In
order to guide and regulate the allocation, ownership, use,
management and administration of land, land use planning is
essential. The National Land Use Planning Commission has undertaken
a number of initiatives which are all in accord
with Agenda 21. These include, among others:
NATIONAL PRIORITY:
STATUS REPORT:
- the preparation of the Northern Zone Physical Plan, covering
administrative areas of Tanga, Kilimanjaro and Arusha
regions;
- the preparation of village land use plans for villages in Dodoma
district;
- Urambo district land use plan; and
- Southern zone land use plan, covering Lindi, Mtwara, and
Ruvuma.
The Commission has also conducted research on the development
of land use planning and land tenure systems in Tanzania.
The main objectives of this study were:
The study has resulted in the drafting of a national strategy
for land delivery. The strategy will reduce competition on land
use and stimulate sustainable land use development and natural
resource utilization.
- review of the existing land use planning activities and
recommendation of an action oriented approach to benefit land
users; -
development of basic framework of land and agricultural legislation
in order to iron out conflicts of land uses and ownership;
- examination of pastoral land problems and recommendation of
possible solutions to pastoral land ownership and management;
- examination of environmental programmes in relation to land use
planning;
- review of sociological issues in land use management and
recommendation of areas of law review; and
- identification of areas for capacity building.
AGENDA 21 CHAPTER 11: COMBATING DEFORESTATION
Causes of deforestation are mainly heavy pressure from
agricultural expansion, livestock grazing, wildfire,
over-exploitation of wood resources for various purposes, and other
human activities. There are no reliable figures on
deforestation in Tanzania although according to FAO estimates, it
ranges from 130,000 to 500,000 ha. per annum.
The major effect of deforestation is the deterioration of the
ecological system with resulting negative impacts on soil
fertility, water flows and biological diversity.
In Agenda 21, land and forest resources are covered under
sections 2.10, 2.11, 2.12, and in the statement of Forest
Principles. Tanzania has initiated actions towards incorporating
environmental concerns in forestry. These initiatives
include the review of sectoral policies (forestry, agriculture,
land policy etc.), adoption of the Tanzania Forestry Action
Plan, the National Conservation Strategy for Sustainable
Development (NCSSD), the National Environmental Action Plan
and the National Environmental Policy.
Forest Policy: The first National Forest Policy was enunciated
in 1953 and reviewed in 1963 to detail the manner in
which the forest and tree resources of this country would be
managed to meet the needs of society sustainably. The Forest
policy is under review in order to reflect social, economic,
cultural and political changes that have taken place since then.
The 1953 Forest Policy objective was: "to demarcate and reserve
in perpetuity, for the benefit of present and future
inhabitants of the country, sufficient forested land or land
capable of afforestation to preserve or improve local climates
and water supplies, stabilize land which is liable to
deterioration, and provide a sustainable yield of forest produce of
all
kinds for internal use and also for export".
Over the past three decades, perspectives on the role of the
forest have changed considerably. There is also pressure
arising from the ever increasing demand for woodfuels, fodder,
timber and forest land for other uses, especially
agriculture. The challenge now is how to manage the forest
resources as a national heritage on an integrated basis in order
to optimize their environmental, economic, social, and cultural
benefits.
Objectives of the Forest Policy: The draft national forest
policy of 1994 has a broad objective of managing forest
resources sustainably. More specific objectives are aimed at:
As is stressed in Agenda 21, section 2.11, it is important to
ensure a rational and holistic approach to the sustainable
and environmentally sound development of forests.
Forest Ordinance, Cap.389: The Forest Ordinance is the major
legal instrument of the Tanzania forest policy. It deals
with the creation of and declaration of forest resources. The
requirements necessary for declaring an area as a forest
reserve are spelled out. The forest Ordinance is not meant to
contain policy means for the attainment of certain
objectives. It is rather an administrative instrument which enables
the establishment of reserves.
NATIONAL PRIORITY:
STATUS REPORT: Land and forest resources are the
main natural endowments of Tanzania. However, is estimated that
the country's forest area has declined from 44,300,000 hectares or
50% of total land area in 1938 to 33, 096,000 hectares
or 43% of total land area in 1987. Currently forests are estimated
to cover 33.5 million ha.
i. maintaining ecological balance which is vital for sustenance
of all life forms, human, animal and plant;
ii. demarcating and reserving in perpetuity, for the benefits of
present and future inhabitants of the country, sufficient
forested land;
iii. managing well forest estates and all forest growth on public
lands;
iv. involving local institutions, individuals and the private
sector in the development and management of forests and
trees;
v. promotion of research in all branches of forestry;
vi. promotion of education in all branches of forestry;
Forest Ordinance Rules: Royalties and penalties in the forest
rules are established by the Government in such a way that the
fees are payable on non-plantation and plantation forest produce by
types. These royalties are periodically adjusted. The fees
neither reflect the value of forest products to the society nor the
resource replacement cost. This contributes to deforestation
and forest degradation. At the same time artificially low wood
prices are hampering farmers to make investment in tree
growing, due to low expected earnings. The Government will in the
future subsidize conservation and not consumption.
Forestry and energy interaction: Domestic energy demand in
Tanzania has been rising rapidly in recent years because of
population growth. Tanzanian forests supply the bulk of the energy
demand. Wood accounts for 90% of the total energy used in
Tanzania. While the supply of fuelwood is dwindling, demand is
rapidly increasing. More than 90% of the population depends
on woodfuel energy.
Charcoal is used widely in urban centres with an estimated
consumption of 392,000 tones per annum and charcoal burners/
producers are licensed to burn charcoal in both public woodlands
and productive forest reserves. Firewood is mostly used in
rural and peri-urban areas.
In 1993 fueldwood consumption was estimated at 45 million cubic
meters per annum, with a per capita wood consumption of
2.0 cubic meters of roundwood per annum. The rural areas alone
consumed about 43.8 million cubic meters of firewood. By
the year 2000, fuelwood demand is expected to surpass 60 million
cubic meters. It was also estimated that an average of 45,000
trees of 0.2 cubic meters size were cut daily for fuelwood in the
1980s. Other uses of fuelwood include: fish smoking; salt
pans; tobacco caring; bricks and tile kilns; pottery, ceramics and
kaolin production.
Frequent ground fires in some areas reduce the regeneration
rate and the variety of woodland plants. Forest fires are
rampant particularly in natural forests where monitoring is very
difficult . The national capacity to fight fires is quite limited
both technically and financially.
Forestry development: Forestry development in the country is
centered around the implementation of the Tanzania Forestry
Action Plan (TFAP). Contained in the TFAP is a forestry development
programme with eight action programmes:
One of the important projects in implementing TFAP has been the
Forest Resources Management Project. The objective
of the project is to improve the management of the forest and
woodlands by strengthening the capacities of institutions
responsible for developing and implementing forest and land
policies. The project is also aimed at increasing the participation
of the private sector and local communities in the management of
forest resources. The components of the project include,
among others:
* National Reconnaissance Level Land Use and Resource
Mapping;
The Ministry responsible for forests has taken the
following amendments to the Forest Ordinance:
i. the ordinance will be extended to cover the establishment of
institutions other than state forest reserves, such as village
forest reserves, controlled areas, silvipastoral areas for
pastoralists, and so forth.
ii. minimum management standards for village and private forest
lands will be included in the forest ordinance, with a
provision that the Forest and Beekeeping Division supervises their
enforcement.
iii. key areas will be reserved for biological conservation as
strict nature resources.
Appropriate incentives in the form of subsidies, subsidized
loans or tax reductions are considered desirable for fostering
afforestation. The Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism will
take the necessary action.
i. sustainable land husbandry
ii. community and farm forestry
iii. forest management
iv. bioenergy development
v. forest industries
vi. beekeeping
vii. wildlife management
viii. conservation of ecosystems and biodiversity
* Tanzania Natural Resource Information Centre;
The number of forestry-related projects has increased
significantly during TFPA implementation. There are more than 120
forestry-related projects either being implemented or under
planning. However, success in the implementation of different
programmes varies. Some programmes, such as land husbandry and
community and farm forestry have progressed well,
largely due to donor interest.
Forest research: Forest research is being carried out by
the Tanzania Forestry Research Institute (TAFORI) and the Sokoine
University of Agriculture (SUA). The forest research programme of
TFAP is based on TAFORI's master plan.
This programme is made up of the following:
* forest resource management in Tabora, Mwanza, Singida
and Shinyanga;
* improvement and monitoring of royalty collection; and
* capacity building and infrastructure support.
i. scientific research in protected forests and woodlands
(Eastern Arc, miombo woodland, lowland forests and
mangroves);
ii. silviculture and ecology of non-protection forests and
woodlands (Eastern Arc, semi-arid zone and miombo);
iii. agrosilvopastoral production systems and soil conservation
(Eastern arc, lowland forests, semi-arid zone, miombo woodland);
iv. tree breeding (in all major zones);
v. silviculture and ecological in plantations (highlands,
semi-arid zones, Lake zone);
vi. soils and nutrition (in plantations); (highland plantations,
Eastern Arc, lowland forests and for community forestry in all
zones);
vii. growth and yield studies (in plantations);
viii. forest protection (all zones); and
ix. timber utilization.
AGENDA 21 CHAPTER 12: MANAGING FRAGILE ECOSYSTEMS: COMBATING DESERTIFICATION AND DROUGHT
The International Convention to Combat Desertification in
Countries Experiencing Drought and/or Desertification
Particularly in Africa was signed by Tanzania on April 16, 1997.
The Convention is being implemented through a consultative and
participatory process which gathers all concerned
actors of civil society. The Convention is seen as a springboard
for a process of improving the standards of living of the
rural communities, particularly in arid and semi-arid areas of the
country. The Convention also provides a focal point for
coordination, planning, monitoring and evaluation of the many,
sometimes conflicting and overlapping projects, related to
land degradation. Tanzania is already taking initiatives to
implement interim measures called under the resolution on
"Urgent Action for Africa" which was adopted during the conclusion
of the Convention in Paris in June 1994.
International response: Since the first UN Conference on
Desertification held in Nairobi, in 1977, the issue of
desertification has been on the international agenda as a world
wide economic, social, and environmental problem. The
United Nations Sudano Sahelian Office (UNSO) was set up to provide
assistance to drought prone countries in West
Africa, but later on expanded its assistance to cover 22 countries
south of the Sahara and north of the Equator. Tanzania is
one of these countries.
According to UNSO, about one third (about 33%) of Tanzania is
affected by desertification. The most affected areas
are those in the arid, semi-arid and dry sub humid areas with
potential economic resources and biodiversity which are
most vulnerable to land degradation. Direct anti-desertification
activities have involved the establishment of a drought and
desertification control unit within NEMC, and the formulation of a
national plan to combat desertification.
Remedial measures: The Government has taken a number of
remedies to address the problem of desertification in the
affected areas by launching conservation/control projects.
National action programme to combat desertification: The
drawing up of a National Action Plan (NAP) is one of the
requirements in the fulfillment of the obligations of Tanzania
under the United Nations Convention to Combat
Desertification. In Tanzania the NAP process has been initiated and
is being funded by DANIDA. A Memorandum of
Understanding was signed by UNDP, UNSO and the Government in
1996.
Institutional arrangements for the implementation of the
Convention have been finalized. A National Steering
Committee has been established and is composed of the members from
relevant government ministries and departments.
The Committee is charged with providing guidance and advising the
government on the implementation of NAP process.
Both a National Secretariat and a National Technical Committee
for the NAP - process have been established. The
Technical Committee is composed of representatives from the
Government, NGOs, and the business community.
The following activities will be undertaken in the NAP process
starting from 1997: inventory of key stakeholders;
production and dissemination of information; awareness raising
campaign; inventory of existing plans, programmes and
projects relevant to desertification control; mobilisation of
financial resources for the implementation of the convention;
institution strengthening; capacity building; and the development
of programmes relevant to the NAP process.
National Desertification/Environment Fund (ND/EF): In order
to implement the Convention particularly at the
grassroots level, a financial mechanism will be established. The
process of establishing a National
Desertification/Environment fund has been started. A National Task
Force has been formed and has been charged with
carrying out consultations for the establishment of the fund. The
fund is intended to support community level anti-desertification
and drought mitigating activities. The fund, to be established as
a trust, will offer grants for the
implementation of projects at grassroots level.
NATIONAL PRIORITY:
STATUS REPORT:
Specific national programmes: The growing awareness
of the problem of desertification has led to a number of new
district
and regional based programmes initiated through the Ministry of
Tourism and Natural Resources. These projects include:
* Land Management Programme for Environment Conservation (LAMP) in
Babati District;
* Kigoma and Rukwa Integrated Development Programme;
* Hifadhi Ardhi Dodoma (HADO) and Hifadhi Ardhi Shinyanga (HASHI),
two soil and water conservation projects addressing
forestry, land-use and livestock in an integrated fashion;
* Hifadhi Mazingira (HIMA) a regional based soil and water
conservation programme in Iringa region;
* Soil Erosion Control and Agroforestry Programme (SECAP) in
Lushoto, dealing with soil, land, and water conservation;
* Soil Conservation and Agroforestry Programme (SCAPA)in Arumeru,
dealing with soil, and water conservation.
The problems of land degradation and desertification continue
to be major threats to the environment and have been
identified as priority problems in the National Environmental
Policy, NCSSD, NEAP and TFAP.
Latest 199_ Land affected by
desertification (Km2)
Other data
AGENDA 21 CHAPTER 13: MANAGING FRAGILE ECOSYSTEMS: SUSTAINABLE MOUNTAIN DEVELOPMENT
NATIONAL PRIORITY:
STATUS REPORT: No information
AGENDA 21 CHAPTER 14: PROMOTING SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT
The agricultural sector development has been undertaken with the
objective of increasing the production of food and cash
crops in order to improve food security, generate foreign exchange,
supply domestic industries with raw materials, and
raise rural income levels to alleviate poverty. Short term policies
in this sector have focused on removing price distortions
and minimizing losses due to inefficiencies in marketing and in
process industries, respectively. Direct involvement and
control of the agricultural sector by the government has been
reduced. Emphasis is being put on research and extension
services.
The government has had in place an agricultural policy since 1983.
Emphasis has been put on increased output and
efficiency of agricultural production at village level; timely
delivery and efficient use of energy inputs into agriculture;
increase of use of tractors and/or animal-drawn implements for
farming; introduction of village-level transport and the use
of small scale human or draught-animal-powered technologies; use of
renewable energy resources; and introduction of
improved efficiency barns for curing tobacco drying tea and smoking
fish to reduce the use of woodfuel.
In its revised form (1993 revision) the policy has also underscored
the promotion and adoption of environmentally friendly
technology and methods through collaboration with other ministries
and institutions, enhancing environmental awareness
through education extension services, and undertaking further
research and dissemination of sustainable agricultural
practices.
The National Land Policy reinforces the objectives of the
Agricultural Policy especially in the treatment of shifting
cultivation which contributes to land and soil degradation. It is
stipulated in the National Land Policy that shifting
cultivation will be controlled through the allocation of land to
peasants on a tenure basis.
NATIONAL PRIORITY:
STATUS REPORT: Agriculture is the mainstay of
the economy. It employs about 80% of the work force and accounts
for over 50% of GDP at factor cost and over 50% of foreign exchange
earnings. It is also the major source of food supply
and raw material for the industrial sector. Furthermore it provides
the market for industrial products. The major export
cash crops are cotton and coffee.
AGENDA 21 CHAPTER 15: CONSERVATION OF BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY
Additional comments relevant to this chapter
The Convention on Biological Diversity gives an opportunity
for Tanzania to contribute to the global initiatives for the
conservation of biological resources and makes it eligible to
benefit from technology transfer, financial assistance,
scientific and research cooperation and capacity building.
In addition, Tanzania stands to benefit from other provisions
relating to:
These provisions provide avenues for the development of a
technical, social and management infrastructure that is
conducive to better protection of the Tanzania biological diversity
and also create a basis for exchange and cooperation
among country parties.
The Convention on International Trade on Endangered Species
(CITES)
CITES endevours to regulate and restrict trade in endangered
species, both between member parties, and between
member parties and non-members. The Convention covers both flora
and fauna, including captive bred (non wild) species.
The Convention mandates signatories to establish a Management
Authority responsible for issuing permits, and a
Scientific Authority responsible for advise to the Management
Authority. Such advise might include advise as to whether
export of a specie would be detrimental to the survival of the
species.
Tanzania ratified the Convention on the 29th November 1979.
Pursuant to the Convention, Tanzania designated the
Wildlife Division of the Ministry of Tourism and Natural Resources
to be the Management Authority, while the Scientific
Authority is an individual scientist. Tanzania has also in the
recent past conducted a thorough wildlife sector
review and assessment.
Lake Victoria environmental management programme: This is
a joint initiative of the three East African countries:
Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania for the environmental management of Lake
Victoria. The objective is to implement a five
year programme for strengthening regional coordination in the
management of the Lake resources, including fisheries
management, control of water hyacinth, management of water quality
and land use, including wetlands. Formulation of
the programme was completed in December 1995. The project has
secured funds from the World Bank and GEF
totalling US$ 20.4 million. A secretariat is in place and
implementation of the project started in March 1997.
NATIONAL PRIORITY:
STATUS REPORT:
* Convention on Biological Diversity was signed by Tanzania on 12
June 1992, and ratified on 1 March 1996.
* Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild
Fauna and Flora was ratified by Tanzania on 29
November, 1979.
* The Regional Lusaka Agreement on cooperative enforcement
operations directed at illegal trade in wild fauna and flora,
adopted in 1994, was signed by Tanzania on 8 September 1994.
* Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild
Animals, adopted 1979.
* International Plant Protection Conservation, adopted in 1951.
* The Convention Concerning the Protection of the World's Cultural
Heritage, adopted in 1972, was ratified by Tanzania
on 20 November 1987.
- research and training;
- public education and awareness;
- the need for impact assessments with respect to projects that
may threaten genetic resources, species or habitat;
- access to and transfer of technology;
- exchange of information;
- technical and scientific cooperation; and
- financial matters.
Lake Tanganyika biodiversity and pollution control project:
This is a five year regional project of riparian states of
Burundi, Tanzania, Zaire and Zambia. The project aims to control
pollution and to prevent the loss of the exceptional diversity
of Lake Tanganyika. The preparation process which was approved in
September 1995 has commenced. UNDP/GEF are the
funding agencies and the project is expected to cost 10 million US
dollars.
National biological diversity country study project: The
overall objective of the project has been to gather and analyze
biological and socio-economic data that would provide an
information base for the development of national strategies,
programmes and action plans for the conservation and sustainable
use of our biological diversity. This study was undertaken
between April 1995 to March 1996 while consolidation of the report
was accomplished by October 1996. The study engaged
local experts from Government and NGOs. The National Environment
Management Council NEMC coordinated this project on
behalf of the government. The study covered Tanzania mainland
only.
A Strategy for the conservation of coastal biological diversity
of mainland Tanzania: This study was done by CEEST
under the auspices of the Division of Environment, and funded by
the World Bank. The study has identified some implications
of specific biodiversity objectives in relation to sectoral
programmes and interests in forestry, agriculture, industry and
tourism
in coastal Tanzania.
Capacity building for environmental management and
pollution abatement: The long term goal of the project is to
improve the environmental condition in Mwanza and consequently in
Lake Victoria through promotion of environmentally
sustainable socio-economical strength and development, by
preparation of a dynamic strategic development plan and investment
strategy. The project will address problems of soil erosion, water
pollution, solid and hazardous waste and industrial waste
water. The project also aims at increasing awareness and
participation of stakeholders in the minimisation and prevention of
pollution. To be implemented in 1998-2000, the project is being
funded by DANIDA.
AGENDA 21 CHAPTER 16: ENVIRONMENTALLY SOUND MANAGEMENT OF BIOTECHNOLOGY
NATIONAL PRIORITY:
STATUS REPORT: No information
AGENDA 21 CHAPTER 17: PROTECTION OF THE OCEANS, ALL KINDS OF SEAS, INCLUDING ENCLOSED AND SEMI-ENCLOSED SEAS, AND COASTAL AREAS AND THE PROTECTION, RATIONAL USE AND DEVELOPMENT OF THEIR LIVING RESOURCES
The UN Convention on the Law of the Sea was ratified by Tanzania
on 30 September 1985.
Other relevant Conventions/Treaties include:
The Regional Convention for the Protection, Management and
Development of the Marine and Coastal Environment of the
Eastern African Region, adopted in 1985, was acceded to by Tanzania
on 1 March 1996.
Nairobi Convention
The Convention for the Protection, Management and development of
the Marine and Coastal Environment of the Eastern
Africa Region, commonly referred to as the Nairobi Convention,
was adopted on 21 June 1985, together with its two
Protocols and an Action Plan. The objective of the Convention is to
ensure sound environmental management of the
maritime and coastal areas of the East African region. The
Convention provides a framework for the protection and
development of marine and coastal resources. The protocols focus on
the conservation of flora and fauna and on measures
for combating marine and coastal pollution.
The Convention is an initiative taken in the East African setting
considering the economic and social value of the Eastern
African marine and coastal environment, the unique hydrographic and
ecological characteristics of the region, local
shortcomings in the integration of environmental protection in
national planning, and the inability of the more broad-based
environmental conventions "to entirely meet the special
requirements of the Eastern African region".
Tanzania stands to benefit from the Convention and its Protocols.
Priority areas include: coastal management, pollution
monitoring, contingency planning to combat marine pollution,
coastal erosion and environmental impact assessment.
Provision is made for cooperation among parties for sharing of
information on the conservation and management of
natural resources and exchange of expertise within the
sub-region.
Marine and Coastal Areas
In 1994 the Marine Parks and Reserve Act (N0. 29 of 1994) was
enacted. The Act aims, inter alia, at the protection,
conservation and restoration of the species and genetic diversity
of living and non-living marine resources and the eco-system
processes of marine and coastal areas. The new Act also marks the
beginning of enactment of environmental
legislation which includes community based conservation through the
involvement of villagers and other local resident
users in the vicinity of, or dependent on a marine park or marine
reserve in all phases of the planning, development and
management of that marine park or reserve, and share in the
benefits of the operation of the protected area. The Mafia
Marine Park is the first marine park to be established in the
country.
NATIONAL PRIORITY:
STATUS REPORT:
- Convention on the Continental Shelf, adopted in 1958.
- Convention on the High Seas, adopted in 1958.
- International Convention for the Protection of Pollution from
Ships, adopted in 1973.
- International Convention on Oil Pollution Preparedness, Response
and Cooperation, adopted in 1990.
AGENDA 21 CHAPTER 18: PROTECTION OF THE QUALITY AND SUPPLY OF FRESHWATER RESOURCES: APPLICATION OF INTEGRATED APPROACHES TO THE DEVELOPMENT, MANAGEMENT AND USE OF WATER RESOURCES
Water resources
Water is an indispensable resource to all living organisms.
It provides life to animals and plants, and it is an important
input to human development.
The increased pressure on surface water is due to a number of
factors. Surface water levels are reported to have been
decreasing because of loss of vegetation cover and changes in land
use patterns, resulting from the increases in population.
Rivers which used to be perennial have become intermittent. While
irrigation is expected to increase, unregulated
abstraction of water is already a source of concern in all major
river basins. The demand for water in a number of major
urban centres is increasing because the population is also
increasing at a fast rate.
- Water uses: In urban areas the largest use of water is for
the household sector. In Dar es Salaam for example, domestic
consumption accounts for approximately 70 percent of total water
consumption. Industry typically accounts for about 10-20 percent of
total consumption. The demand for water exceeds supply in most
urban centres. In rural areas water is used
primarily for domestic purposes and for livestock. The total amount
of irrigated land remains limited despite considerable
potential, particularly within the major river basins such as the
Pangani and Rufiji. Nationally approximately 150,000 ha.
are under irrigation. Irrigated areas are comprised of small scale
projects with predominant crops being rice and sugar
cane. The development potential for irrigation is large, with
almost 900,000 hectares being suitable. Over 50% of this
total is in the Rufiji river basin, where water allocation
conflicts are already evident. In addition, some 80,000 hectares
are located in the Ruvu basin, the current source of water for Dar
es Salaam, and another 85,000 hectares in the nearby
Wami basin.
Water is also used for the production of electricity. Eighty
percent of installed electric generation capacity relies on
hydropower. The two large projects, Mtera and Kidatu in the Rufiji
River basin account for most of the hydropower
capacity (280MW) while four smaller projects in the Pangani basin
account for approximately 70MW of capacity.
Conflicting priorities for use of water in the Rufiji basin
combined with effects of land degradation on sustained low
flows, and low precipitation have created water shortages.
With barely 65% of urban and 43% of rural residents in Tanzania
with access to potable water within 400 metres,
providing safe drinking water and environmentally acceptable
sanitation and sewage treatment also remains an issue of
priority concern.
- Shared waters: Tanzania shares a number of water bodies with
neighboring countries. Of these, Lake Victoria, has
been identified as having a serious pollution problem. Untreated
discharges of sewage from the country's second largest
city of Mwanza reach the lake. In addition, large textile and
tannery mills discharge toxic substances and oxygen
demanding pollutants. Coffee processing, cotton processing, cotton
ginneries, vegetable oil mills, cosmetics industry, soap
and fish processing plants discharge oxygen demanding wastes into
the lake catchment area. Lake Victoria appears to be
susceptible to eutrophication due in part to the introduction of
the Nile Perch. The number of small fish which controlled
algae blooms has been severely reduced, as they are food for the
perch. This "food web" change indicates that more
extensive pollution control measures are needed if oxygen
deficiencies are to be improved. Frequent fish kills following
alga blooms have been reported in Uganda, Kenya and Tanzania and
the invasion of water hyacinth is evident everywhere.
Other sources of contamination include mercury waste coming from
mining areas in the lake basin, and run-offs from the
overuse of agrochemicals and fertilizer in cotton production. A
joint international effort to reduce pollution loading in the
lake, and better manage fishing and other activities is being
supported by the World Bank and the Global Environment
Fund.
NATIONAL PRIORITY:
STATUS REPORT:
- Water sources: Ground water is a key source of water for both
rural and urban areas. It is the source of water for the
municipalities of Arusha, Dodoma and Mtwara. Shallow aquifers are
emphasized for water supply because they are less
costly. However, their vulnerability to pollution is high.
Information on areas under irrigation and water abstraction
from rivers and aquifers is sparse, and unreliable. It is estimated
that some 150,000 hectares are under irrigation by small holder
farmers, using "run of the river" techniques. Another 40,000
hectares are in large centrally managed schemes. The main crops
produced in irrigated areas is rice and sugar cane. In
addition, there are a few farms in the Moshi-Arusha area producing
irrigated flowers and vegetables for the foreign market. All
in all the area which is potentially irrigable in Tanzania is
large, possibly as much as 900,000 hectares.
The Ministry of Agriculture, with assistance from FAO and UNDP
has been reviewing the experience with irrigation
projects, and has concluded that:
* emphasis should be on existing small holder schemes, and
future development should be based on stage improvement and
expansion of existing local technology, which allow the farmers to
adapt at their own pace. Equal emphasis should be given to
operational and extension support to farmers at existing
schemes;
* projects undertaken to-date have been too sophisticated,
requiring expensive structures and massive capital outlays. The
funds for completing these projects have often not materialized,
causing a waste of resources invested in un-used, and
uncompleted schemes;
* for small holder irrigation schemes to succeed, management of
water and land use should be in the hands of associations
representing the interests of small scale farmers.
A ranking of potential projects has been made, and a small
holder-focused irrigation rehabilitation and development
programme has been proposed. In order to carry out such a
programme, it is proposed that the key responsibilities for
operational support and extension services be provided at the zonal
level (bringing together similar regions). The Ministry of
Agriculture will strengthen its capacity to coordinate irrigation
activities and provide assistance at the design and construction
stage. Projects will be carried out in Moshi, Morogoro, Tabora,
Mbeya, Mwanza and Mtwara zones.
- River basin management and smallholder irrigation improvement:
The objective of this project is to strengthen the
national capacity to manage water resources and address
water-related environmental concerns at the national level and in
the
Rufiji and Pangani river basins. Furthermore it is intended to
improve irrigation efficiency of selected smallholder traditional
irrigation schemes in the river basins. The project is financed by
the International Development Association (IDA) and
implemented by the Ministry of Water and the Ministry of
Agriculture.
The Water Policy
The overall national objective of the water sector is to
provide adequate clean and safe water to within easy reach, to
satisfy
other water needs and to protect water sources. Specific
environmental objectives of the water policy include:
- Water for irrigation: Irrigation is an important
aspect of water use particularly because of the variability
inherent in
Tanzania's rainfed production systems, which creates problems of
shortage of the main food crops in years of inadequate or
poorly timed rainfall. Irrigation is not yet widespread, but where
it is used regulation of water consumption is a problem. Small
holder farmers, who account for about 80% of water abstraction for
irrigation, use traditional furrows which are prone to
excessive leakages, poor drainage and water logging, creating
problems of shortage of the main food crops in years of
inadequate or poorly timed rainfall.
* protection of water catchment areas;
* promotion of efficient use of water;
* promotion of efficient water treatment, and waste water
treatment;
* promotion of water recycling;
* institution of water charges that reflect full value of water
resources;
* prevention of water pollution; and
* improved management and conservation of water bodies and
wetlands.
AGENDA 21 CHAPTER 19: ENVIRONMENTALLY SOUND MANAGEMENT OF TOXIC CHEMICALS, INCLUDING PREVENTION OF ILLEGAL INTERNATIONAL TRAFFIC IN TOXIC AND DANGEROUS PRODUCTS
Chemical industry
Recognizing the dangers of releasing pollutants into the
atmosphere, the chemical industry in Tanzania has embarked on
identifying and reducing pollutants by adding effluent treatment
and scrubbing units to existing processes. A few operators
have succeeded in optimizing operations in order to reduce fugitive
emissions and waste generations. An example is the
introduction of membrane separation to replace mercury-based
techniques in the calor-alkali industry. Some firms have
been able to substitute dangerous organic chemicals and
trichloroethylene with less hazardous alternatives.
NATIONAL PRIORITY:
STATUS REPORT:
AGENDA 21 CHAPTER 20: ENVIRONMENTALLY SOUND MANAGEMENT OF HAZARDOUS WASTES, INCLUDING PREVENTION OF ILLEGAL INTERNATIONAL TRAFFIC IN HAZARDOUS WASTES
The Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements
of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal
The Basel Convention was acceded to by Tanzania on 7 April
1993.
Additional comments relevant to this chapter
The Bamako Convention
The Bamako Convention on the Ban of the Import into Africa and the
Control of Transboundary Movement and
Management of Hazardous Wastes within Africa was adopted in
1991. Tanzania ratified the Convention on 7 April 1993.
The Bamako Convention takes its cue from the Basel Convention on
the control of transboundary movements of
Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal (1989). In addition, the OAU
had decided to formulate a legal framework that would
complement the Basel Convention. The latter does not prohibit
exports of hazardous wastes from industrialized countries
to developing countries.
Whereas the Basel Convention explicitly excludes radioactive wastes
within its scope of application, the Bamako
Convention has expressly included such wastes within its regulatory
ambit. Again, the Convention prohibits importation or
exportation to Africa of hazardous substances banned or refused
registration in the country of manufacture on account of
human health or environmental concerns. Pursuant to that the
Government of Tanzania banned importation of DDT into
the country. The Bamako Convention also makes illegal trafficking
of hazardous wastes a criminal offence and
extraditable among parties. Parties also committed themselves to
establish appropriate national legislation to prevent and
punish illegal traffic. Tanzania has yet to enact such
legislation.
NATIONAL PRIORITY:
STATUS REPORT:
AGENDA 21 CHAPTER 21: ENVIRONMENTALLY SOUND MANAGEMENT OF SOLID WASTES AND SEWAGE-RELATED ISSUES
NATIONAL PRIORITY:
STATUS REPORT: No information
AGENDA 21 CHAPTER 22: SAFE AND ENVIRONMENTALLY SOUND MANAGEMENT OF RADIOACTIVE WASTES
NATIONAL PRIORITY:
STATUS REPORT: No information
AGENDA 21 CHAPTERS 23-32: MAJOR GROUPS
The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination
Against Women was
24.b Increasing the proportion of women decision makers. No
information
24.2.e assessing, reviewing, revising and implementing
curricula and other educational material with a view to promoting
dissemination of gender-relevant knowledge.
No information
24.2.f and 24.2.c formulating and implementing policies,
guidelines, strategies and plans for achievement of equality in
all aspects of society including issuing a strategy by year 2000 to
eliminate obstacles to full participation of women in
sustainable development. See below
24.2.d establishing mechanisms by 1995 to assess implementation
and impact of development and environment policies
and programmes on women. No information
Brief comments on this chapter (maximum 100 words) (please, do
not exceed this page):
Agenda 21 recognizes the role of women in sustainable
development. Chapter 24 deals with "Action for Women:
Sustainable and Equitable Development". Governments are enjoined to
implement the Nairobi Forward Looking Strategies
for Women which emphasizes the need for women to participate in
ecosystem management and control of environmental
degradation.
In Tanzania, as in many other developing countries, the social
position of women makes them closer to the
environment than men. Since the division of labour (mostly in rural
areas) is still gender-based, women perform chores
like fuel wood collection, water fetching from distant places,
hand-hoe cultivation etc. Notwithstanding the importance of
involving women in natural resource management, women continue to
be inhibited by some traditions and by statutory
provisions contained in Tanzania's laws. For example some codified
customary laws prevent a woman from inheriting
land in the event of the death of her husband or father. The
government through the Law Reform Commission is working
to amend and/or repeal such discriminatory laws.
The government through the Ministry of Women, Children and
Community Development is keen to enhance women's
participation in development and environmental management through
credit provision, encouraging the use of fuel efficient
cooking stoves, training on various development issues, and other
activities.
Ch. 24: GLOBAL ACTION FOR WOMEN TOWARDS SUSTAINABLE AND
EQUITABLE DEVELOPMENT.
25.4 establishing processes that promote dialogue between
the youth and government at all levels and mechanisms that
permit youth access to information and opportunity to present their
views on implementing A21.
No information
Describe their role in the national process:
25.3 reducing youth unemployment
No information
25.5 ensuring that by year 2000 more than 50% of youth -- gender
balanced -- have access to appropriate secondary
education or vocational training.
No information
Brief comments on this chapter (maximum 100 words) (please, do
not exceed this page):
In Tanzania, youth make up a substantial part of the population
and a significant part of its working population. There
is a need therefore to involve them in major decisions. To this
end, development plans should contain initiatives to provide
the youth (and the general population) with a healthy environment,
improved standards of living, education and
employment opportunities.
However, Tanzania's employment trend in the formal sector
depicts a downward trend falling from 12% in 1978 to
5.5% in 1995. Reasons for this fall include, among others, the fall
in the Gross National Product, growth of the number
of graduates, and shrinkage of the public sector. Chapter 25 of
Agenda 21 urges governments to make sure that by 2000,
more than 50 per cent of each country's youth should have access to
secondary education or equivalent vocational training.
Towards this end, the government in 1996 enacted the Vocational
Education and Training Authority Act through which a
statutory fund was launched for purposes of supporting vocational
training.
Ch. 25: CHILDREN AND YOUTH IN SUSTAINABLE
DEVELOPMENT.
26.3.a establishing a process to empower indigenous people
and their communities -- through policies and legal
instruments: No information
26.3.b strengthening arrangements for active participation
in national policies
No information
26.3.c involving indigenous people in resource management
strategies and programmes at the national and local level.
No information
Brief comments on this chapter (maximum 100 words) (please, do not
exceed this page):
27.5 developing mechanisms that allow NGOs to play their
partnership role responsibly and effectively.
27.6 reviewing formal procedures and mechanisms to involve NGOs
in decision making and implementation.
27.8 promoting and allowing NGOs to participate in the
conception, establishment and evaluation of official mechanisms
to review Agenda 21 implementation.
27.7 establishing a mutually productive dialogue by 1995 at
the national level between NGOs and governments.
Brief comments on this chapter (maximum 100 words) (please, do not
exceed this page):
Tanzania embraces a wide spectrum of NGOs ranging from social
welfare NGOs, developmental NGOs, educational
NGOs, women and youth NGOs and research NGOs. Most NGOs were formed
after the coming into force of the Bill of
Rights in 1987 which guaranteed the right to free association and
freedom of speech. However, the regulatory framework
for NGOs is based on the Societies Ordinance Cap. 337 of the Laws
of Tanzania which was mainly meant to govern
charitable organizations.
Most of the NGOs are registered as societies under the Ministry
of Home Affairs or under the Registrar of Companies
as companies limited by guarantee. Generally speaking the smaller
NGOs are community based and are continuously
affected by problems of poor leadership and lack of financial
resources. Donor dependence has also affected the
functioning of most NGOs. Research NGOs have affiliations with
universities and academic institutions.
NGOs have been playing a very important role in managing the
environment and spearheading development
programmes. NGOs render technical support to community-based
projects. They are conversant with community
problems, needs and solutions. They also assist communities in
interpreting laws and regulations. Table 8.1 lists some of
the NGOs in accordance with the above classification.
Chapter 27 of Agenda 21 underscores that vital role that NGOs
in participatory democracy and diverse expertise they
posses in fields important to sustainable development. Although
most of these NGOs are doing a good job in spearheading
development projects and environmental conservation activities,
their functions remain largely uncoordinated. In addition,
most NGOs lack the necessary capacity to manage their activities.
Their capacity needs to be built and strengthened.
Ch. 26: RECOGNIZING AND STRENGTHENING THE ROLE OF
INDIGENOUS PEOPLE AND THEIR
COMMUNITIES. Ch. 27: STRENGTHENING THE ROLE OF
NON-GOVERNMENTAL ORGANIZATIONS: PARTNERS FOR
SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT.
(a) Action Oriented
| Tanzania Wildlife Conservation Society (TWCS) | Dar es Salaam | Awareness creation, anti-poaching, conservation activities, and general initiatives. |
| Malihai Clubs of Tanzania (MCT) | Arusha | Environmental education, information dissemination, and tree planting. |
| Lawyers' Environmental Action Team (LEAT) | Dar es Salaam | Environmental litigation, lobbying of environmental laws for enactment /amendment. |
| Tanzania Environmental Society (TESO) | Dar es Saalam | Environmental education and public awareness, soil conservation, afforestation, sustainable agriculture, land use, watershed management, networking, etc. |
| Journalists Environmental Association of Tanzania (JET) | Dar es Salaam | Dissemination of environmental news, investigation on environmental deterioration, etc. |
(b) Research Oriented
| Centre for Energy, Environment, Science & Technology (CEEST) | Dar es Salaam | Research on energy, environmental science and technology issues, natural resource use and management,etc. |
| Economic & Social Research Foundation (ESRF) | Dar es Salaam | Research on economic, social and development issues. |
| Research on Poverty Alleviation (REPOA) | Dar es Salaam | Conducts research on the informal sector, employment trends, poverty alleviation, environment and development trends. |
(c) Community Based NGOs
| Laramatak Development Organization | Monduli | Community based conservation, pastoral rights, etc. |
| Nyambimbi Economic Group | Bariadi | Afforestation, soil conservation, etc. |
| Tanzania Tree Planting Foundation | Handeni | Tree planting and environmental conservation. |
| Pollution Control Association (POCA) | Dar es Salaam | Collection of garbage, manufacturing garbage collection facilities, etc. |
| |
| Ch. 28: LOCAL AUTHORITIES' INITIATIVES IN SUPPORT OF
AGENDA 21.
28.2.d encouraging local authorities to implement and monitor programmes that aim to ensure participation of women and youth in local decision making.
Brief comments on this chapter (maximum 100 words) (please, do not exceed this page):
Participatory environmental resource management: The Participatory Environmental Resource Management (PERM) is a US$ 10 million five year project whose objective is to strengthen environmental management through encouragement of community based natural resource management (CBNRM) in Tanzania. The project will assist the government, NGOs, the private sector, and individuals to identify and implement CBNRM programmes based on indigenous knowledge, practices, and experience. Project implementation has started.
| |
| Ch. 29: STRENGTHENING THE ROLE OF WORKERS AND
THEIR TRADE UNIONS. 29.2 full participation of workers in implementation and evaluation of A21. No information
29.3 a to e (By year 2000, (a) promoting ratification of ILO conventions; (b) establishing bipartite and tripartite mechanism on safety, health and sustainable development; (c) increasing number of environmental collective agreements; (d) reducing occupational accidents and injuries; (e) increasing workers' education and training efforts. No information
Brief comments on this chapter (maximum 100 words) (please, do not exceed this page): Other Conventions/Treaties of relevance include:
| |
| |
| 30: STRENGTHENING THE ROLE OF BUSINESS AND INDUSTRY. 30.6 increasing the efficiency of resource use, including reuse, recycling, and reduction of waste per unit of economic output.
30.18.a encouraging the concept of stewardship in management and use of natural resources by entrepreneurs.
List any actions taken in this area:
30.18.b increasing number of enterprises that subscribe to and implement sustainable development policies.
Brief comments on this chapter (maximum 100 words) (please, do not exceed this page): In the industry-sector a number of sustainable development initiatives have been initiated. These include, among others:
I. Sustainable industrial development policy In 1996 the Government of Tanzania launched the Sustainable Industrial Development Policy (SIDP) (1996-2020) with the main mission of: a) contributing towards the achievement of the overall national long-term development goals as enshrined in the overall national vision, and b) enhancing a sustainable development of the industrial sector.
The main objectives of the policy are: human development; creation of employment opportunities; sustainable economic growth; environmental sustainability; and equitable development. The SIDP has underscored the role science and technology, and Research and Development (R&D) have played in the attainment of the desired goals. There is a very weak link between the few local R&D institutions and the productive sector in the country mainly due to the fact that industrialists do not appreciate the role of R&D activities, and much R&D work is perceived as not addressing the actual needs of the productive sector. In the light of the above, the following measures will be undertaken: a) strengthening of existing scientific and technological institutions by providing them with adequate finances, expertise, infrastructural facilities and schemes for retention of technical experts; b) rationalization and synchronization of R&D institutions; and c) articulation of areas for collaboration between manufacturers and local R&D network.
Since the substitution of deleterious technologies by environmentally friendly technologies involves huge capital investments, most operators in industry have opted for add-on technologies and optimizing existing processes.
II. Chemical industry (see chapter 19) III. Cleaner Production Center of Tanzania (see chapter 34)
| |
Strengthening the role of business A national partnership is required if the goal of sustainable development is to be achieved. It is in recognition of this that promotion of responsible entrepreneurship was underscored in the national plan for Agenda 21. One of the key stakeholders to contribute to responsible entrepreneurship is the business community.
The Tanzania Chamber of Commerce, Industry and Agriculture (TCCIA) has formed a committee on natural resources and environment with the main objective of raising the awareness of the business community on environmental issues so as to integrate environmental responsibility in company policies. The government will work with the business community in the drafting of national procedures for Environmental Impact Assessment, the evolution of national environmental standards, and in the implementation of international conventions, protocols, and other agreements to which Tanzania is a party.
The Government has also appointed a Business Sector Advisory Committee on Economic Empowerment and Environmental Management. The Committee is made up of several businessmen. Some of the main tasks of the committee are:
|
| |
| Ch. 31: SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNOLOGICAL
COMMUNITY. 31.3.b improving exchange of knowledge and concerns between S&T community and the general public. Scientific community has already established ways in which to address the general public and deal with sustainable development. (see Chapters 34 and 35)
31.9 developing, improving and promoting international acceptance of codes of practice and guidelines related to science and technology and its role in reconciling environment and development. No information
Brief comments on this chapter not already described in chapter 35 (maximum 100 words) (please, do not exceed this page):
| |
| Ch. 32: STRENGTHENING THE ROLE OF
FARMERS. 32.5.c promoting and encouraging sustainable farming practices and technologies. No information
32.5.e developing a policy framework that provides incentives and motivation among farmers for sustainable and efficient farming practices. No information
32.5.f enhancing participation of organizations of farmers in design and implementation of sustainable development policies. No information
Brief comments on this chapter (maximum 100 words) (please, do not exceed this page):
| |
AGENDA 21 CHAPTER 33: FINANCIAL RESOURCES AND MECHANISMS
CHANGES IN NATIONAL BUDGET TO ADDRESS SUSTAINABLE
DEVELOPMENT: No information
NEW ECONOMIC INSTRUMENTS: No information
ELIMINATION OF ENVIRONMENTALLY UNFRIENDLY SUBSIDIES:
NATIONAL PRIORITY:
STATUS REPORT: No information
No information
ODA policy issues
ODA funding provided or received (Total US$million)
Net flow of external capital from all sources as % of GDP
Other data
AGENDA 21 CHAPTER 34: TRANSFER OF ENVIRONMENTALLY SOUND TECHNOLOGY, COOPERATION AND CAPACITY-BUILDING
The agro-industries, which include the sugar, sisal, vegetable
oil/fat refineries, dairies, breweries, cotton ginneries,
distilleries, coffee processing factories and tanneries, use
technologies which can cause environmental problems in the
form of pollution.
Heavy-industries include: Aluminium Africa (ALAF); the Southern
Paper Mills (SPM); the Tanzanian and Italian
Petroleum Refinery Company (TIPER); and the three cement factories
(Dar es Salaam, Tanga and Mbeya). Except for
SPM, all the other industries are located in urban areas. Their
environmental effects, therefore, are bound to be even
more apparent.
The underlying causes of industrial pollution in Tanzania
include:
See also Chapter 4 for information on technologies in the power
sector.
STATUS REPORT ON LINKS BETWEEN NATIONAL, REGIONAL AND
INTERNATIONAL INFORMATION
NETWORKS/SYSTEMS: No information
MEANS OF IMPLEMENTATION: No information
NATIONAL PRIORITY:
Role of technology in sustainable development:
The greatest challenge facing all nations is still one of achieving
sustainable development. Development entails improvement in
welfare. In this regard, technology plays a very crucial
role. In Tanzania almost all modern technology has to be imported.
In the process, possibilities exist for importing
environmentally 'unfriendly' technologies. Industry is the sector
which can be adversely affected because it depends on
and utilizes imported technology.
(i) use of inappropriate and harmful technologies;
(ii) lack of awareness on cleaner production technologies;
(iii) lack of investment capability in acquiring and diffusing
newer and cleaner technologies;
(iv) lack of capability to introduce minor changes to the existing
technologies; and
(v) lack of a maintenance culture.
AGENDA 21 CHAPTER 35: SCIENCE FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
STEPS TAKEN TO ENHANCE SCIENTIFIC UNDERSTANDING, IMPROVE LONG
TERM SCIENTIFIC
ASSESSMENT, BUILDING OF CAPACITY AND CAPABILITY:
Recognizing the importance of science and its potential impact
on sustainable development, the government of Tanzania
has put in place a Higher Education Policy to provide the direction
and guidance to stakeholders and service providers.
The policy has placed emphasis on the teaching of basic sciences
and the development of corresponding skills.
With regard to environmental sciences the policy singles out
the following subjects for inclusion in the national
curriculum:
- the study and prediction of climatic and global change as a
result of human activity on the environment;
NATIONAL PRIORITY:
STATUS REPORT ON NATIONAL SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE,
RESEARCH NEEDS AND PRIORITIES:
- environmental pollution including water and air pollution with
the disposal of toxic and radioactive wastes;
- disaster management;
- energy conservation;
- environmental conservation and enrichment;
- the effects of chemicals, drugs, pharmaceutical, fertilizers etc.
on the environment; and
biodiversity and genetic engineering.
Year
Number of scientists, engineers and technicians
engaged in research and experimental
development
#
19--
Total expenditure for research and experimental
development (US$eq.)
$
19--
Other data
AGENDA 21 CHAPTER 36: PROMOTING EDUCATION, PUBLIC AWARENESS AND TRAINING
Human resource development is fundamental in building a strong,
resilient and competitive economy. Tanzania's
history since independence shows that it pursued policies favorable
to human resource development. These include:
- articulated determination to eradicate poverty and
illiteracy;
However, there are indications that dividends from these
policies have dwindled. There has been persistant poverty,
illiteracy, underemployment and unemployment leading to decline in
standards of living. Specifically, the following
clearly features:
In secondary education Tanzania is deemed to have one of the
lowest enrollment rates in the world. This in spite of the
fact that: (a) societal demand for secondary education is high, and
(b) the percentage of primary school leavers entering
secondary schools has increased from 4.8% in 1981 to 13.3% in 1993.
Private secondary schools have of course
mushroomed, and the government has had to liberalize the provision
and financing of secondary education.
However, the overall enrollment ratio of boys and girls in
secondary school is still low by even sub-Saharan standards.
In 1993, female enrollment accounted for 44% of total form 1-4
enrollment but only 29% of all form 5-6 level. This
gender imbalance gets worse at the tertiary and higher levels of
education and training. This raises a serious concern on
the development of our human resource.
As we look forward to the dynamics of the 21st century and plan
to become a high middle income country by year
2025 the need to expand investment in human resources is apparent.
The share of the government's budgetary allocation to
the provision of basic social services will be increased from the
present 15%. The private sector will also be encouraged
to invest in human resource development.
NATIONAL PRIORITY:
STATUS REPORT: Human resource development
(HRD) refers to both physical and mental well-being. It involves
developing the physical and mental faculties of people so that they
are better able to control and skillfully manage the
different aspects of life and environment.
- universal primary education (UPE);
- introduction of the philosophy of education for self reliance;
and
- diversification of secondary education, interfacing work with
education as well as expansion of secondary schools and
tertiary and higher education institutions.
- investment in human resources has seriously declined in the past
decade or so;
- government budget allocation to social services has fallen far
short of the requirements. Health and education have been
the major casualties; and
- the UPE rate of primary school enrollment which in 1978 peaked at
93% of all eligible children could not be sustained.
Current figures indicate that the rate has fallen to 50-60% of
eligible children with striking regional variations.
| Year | ||||
| 1990 | 313,140 | 47,227 | 5,258 | 1.7 |
| 1991 | 407,716 | 48,309 | 5,568 | 1.4 |
| 1992 | 371,358 | 44,896 | 6,154 | 1.7 |
| 1993 | 403,679 | 48,496 | 6,484 | 1.6 |
| 1994 | 400,066 | 52,819 | 6,752 | 1.7 |
| 1995 | 53,698 | 6,875 | 1.6 | |
| Source: Ministry of Education | ||||
a) Reorientation of education towards sustainable development b) Increasing public awareness c) Promoting training
Activities undertaken include environmental research, environmental education and documentation. In order to promote environmental education in the school system in Tanzania, NEMC has been involved in a number of activities, namely: convening workshops for teachers and trainers; workshops to raise awareness; production of teaching/learning materials as well as hand-outs for teachers and students in primary and secondary schools; and monitoring the environment in schools and teacher training institutions.
ROLE OF MAJOR GROUPS: No information
FINANCING AND COST EVALUATION OF THE LABOUR ACTIVITIES: No information
|
| Latest 199- | ||||
| Adult literacy rate (%) Male | ||||
| Adult literacy rate (%) Female | ||||
| % of primary school children reaching grade 5 (1986-97) | ||||
| Mean number of years of schooling | ||||
| % of GNP spent on education | ||||
| Females per 100 males in secondary school | ||||
| Women per 100 men in the labour force | ||||
| Other data
| ||||
AGENDA 21 CHAPTER 37: NATIONAL MECHANISMS AND INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION FOR CAPACITY-BUILDING IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
National capacity building is also covered under sectoral chapters.
Donors: You may wish to describe here how Agenda 21 has influenced your ODA policies in this area.
Capacity building
A number of interventions have been taken by the government in
the field of environmental law often with support of the
donors. Some major interventions include:
The Government will ensure that these initiatives, which are mainly
supported by donor agencies, are sustainable by
implementing them using local capacities and expertise.
(see also chapter 8)
NATIONAL PRIORITY:
STATUS REPORT ON NATIONAL ENDOGENOUS CAPACITY
BUILDING:
- UNDP/UNEP Joint Project on Environmental Law and Institutions in
Africa- the project aims at the review and
harmonisation of legislation relating to Forestry, Wildlife,
Environmental Impact Assessment, Management of Lake
Victoria, Management of Hazardous Wastes and the formulation of
environmental standards. The project is being
implemented at the sub-regional level involving the three East
African states of Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania.
- Inter-regional Water Law and Policy Advisory Programme involving
four countries, namely, Tanzania, Sri Lanka,
Niger and Uganda funded by the Netherlands Government.
- Participatory Environment and Natural Resources Management (PERM)
, a project funded by USAID aimed at
strengthening local capacities in managing the environment.
- Review of the National Parks Legislation funded by the Food and
Agricultural Organization of the UN.
- Review of the Land Legislation funded by the Overseas Development
Organization of the UK.
AGENDA 21 CHAPTER 38: INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTIONAL ARRANGEMENTS
(see chapter 37)
Ch. 38: Brief summary of any particular UN System
response affecting this country/state:
AGENDA 21 CHAPTER 39: INTERNATIONAL LEGAL INSTRUMENTS AND MECHANISMS
Ch. 39: International Legal Instruments are covered
under the relevant sectoral chapters. This is a listing of major
agreements/conventions (not already covered) entered into and
relevant to Agenda 21:
* Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Production
and Stockpiling of Bacteriological (Biological)
and Toxic Weapons and on their Destruction, adopted in 1971.
* Convention on the Prohibition of Military or any other
hostile use of Environmental modification techniques,
adopted in 1977.
* International Tropical Timber Agreement, adopted in
1983.
AGENDA 21 CHAPTER 40: INFORMATION FOR DECISION-MAKING
| 2. | International cooperation and trade | |||||
| 3. | Combating poverty | |||||
| 4. | Changing consumption patterns | |||||
| 5. | Demographic dynamics and sustainability | |||||
| 6. | Human health | |||||
| 7. | Human settlements | |||||
| 8. | Integrating E & D in decision-making | |||||
| 9. | Protection of the atmosphere | |||||
| 10. | Integrated planning and management of land resources | |||||
| 11. | Combating deforestation | |||||
| 12. | Combating desertification and drought | |||||
| 13. | Sustainable mountain development | |||||
| 14. | Sustainable agriculture and rural development | |||||
| 15. | Conservation of biological diversity | |||||
| 16. | Biotechnology | |||||
| 17. | Oceans, seas, coastal areas and their living resources | |||||
| 18. | Freshwater resources | |||||
| 19. | Toxic chemicals | |||||
| 20. | Hazardous wastes | |||||
| 21. | Solid wastes | |||||
| 22. | Radioactive wastes | |||||
| 24. | Women in sustainable development | |||||
| 25. | Children and youth | |||||
| 26. | Indigenous people | |||||
| 27. | Non-governmental organizations | |||||
| 28. | Local authorities | |||||
| 29. | Workers and trade unions | |||||
| 30. | Business and industry | |||||
| 31. | Scientific and technological community | |||||
| 32. | Farmers | |||||
| 33. | Financial resources and mechanisms | |||||
| 34. | Technology, cooperation and capacity-building | |||||
| 35. | Science for sustainable development | |||||
| 36. | Education, public awareness and training | |||||
| 37. | International cooperation for capacity-building | |||||
| 38. | International institutional arrangements | |||||
| 39. | International legal instruments | |||||
| 40. | Information for decision-making | |||||
Data and information Tanzania, like many other developing countries, has a large amount of data on natural resources and environment. However, most of the data are scattered and exist in different formats. This makes it difficult to compare, extrapolate or up-date information. This is a serious draw-back for proper environmental planning and/or monitoring. Moreover, there has been little or no coordination among the various agencies working in the same area and this has resulted in duplication of data collection and therefore a waste of resources. It is in the light of these problems that Tanzania has decided to establish specialized information centres to address sector specific and general needs. The Tanzania Natural Resources Information Centre (TANRIC) with the mandate to collect and manage natural resources and environmental data, was established in 1994. TANRIC is part of the Institute of Resource Assessment (IRA) of the University of Dar es Salaam. The Centre was established with funding from the World Bank as a component of the Forest Resource Management Project. The project is being implemented by the University of Dar es Salaam in collaboration with the Ministry of Tourism and Natural Resources and the Soil Survey and Land Research Centre of Cranifield University in the UK. TANRIC is made up of the following components: a computerized information system (TANRIS) comprising of a data base on information on organizations working in the environment and natural resources, a bibliography, a population module, an expertise profile data base, meteorology data base, and a GIS catalogue; a reference library; and a GIS unit. Other nodes of an 'information system' on environment and sustainable development include a biodiversity reference centre at the University of Dar es Salaam library, the centre for information on agriculture at the Sokoine University of Agriculture, the environment information centre at NEMC and the Tanzania Commission for Science and Technology.
|
Latest
199-
Number of telephones in use per 100 inhabitants
Other data
Copyright © United Nations
Department of Economic and Social Affairs
Comments and suggestions: esa@un.org
1 November 1997