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Regional Profile
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Information Provided by the Economic and Social Commission for
Western Asia to the United Nations Commission on Sustainable
Development
United Nations Department for Policy Coordination and
Sustainable Development
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| APELL | Awareness and Preparedness for Emergencies at Local Level |
| CFC | chlorofluorocarbon |
| CGIAR | Consultative Group on International Agriculture Research |
| CILSS | Permanent Inter-State Committee on Drought Control in the Sahel |
| EEZ | exclusive economic zone |
| ECA | Economic Commission for Africa |
| ECE | Economic Commission for Europe |
| ECLAC | Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean |
| ELCI | Environmental Liaison Centre International |
| EMINWA | environmentally sound management of inland water |
| ESCAP | Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific |
| ESCWA | Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia |
| FAO | Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations |
| GATT | General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade |
| GAW | Global Atmosphere Watch (WMO) |
| GEF | Global Environment Facility |
| GEMS | Global Environmental Monitoring System (UNEP) |
| GEMS/WATER | Global Water Quality Monitoring Programme |
| GESAMP | Joint Group of Experts on the Scientific Aspects of Marine Pollution |
| GIPME | Global Investigation of Pollution in Marine Environment (UNESCO) |
| GIS | Geographical Information System |
| GLOBE | Global Legislators Organisation for a Balanced Environment |
| GOS | Global Observing System (WMO/WWW) |
| GRID | Global Resource Information Database |
| GSP | generalized system of preferences |
| HIV | human immunodeficiency virus |
| IAEA | International Atomic Energy Agency |
| IAP-WASAD | International Action Programme on Water and Sustainable Agricultural Development |
| IARC | International Agency for Research on Cancer |
| IBSRAM | International Board of Soil Resources and Management |
| ICCA | International Council of Chemical Associations |
| ICES | International Council for the Exploration of the Sea |
| ICPIC | International Cleaner Production Information Clearing House |
| ICSC | International Civil Service Commission |
| ICSU | International Council of Scientific Unions |
| IEEA | Integrated environmental and economic accounting |
| IFAD | International Fund for Agricultural Development |
| IGADD | Intergovernmental Authority for Drought and Development |
| IGBP | International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme (ICSU) |
| IGBP/START | International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme/Global Change System for Analysis, Research and Training |
| ILO | International Labour Organisation |
| IMF | International Monetary Fund |
| IMO | International Maritime Organization |
| INFOTERRA | International Environment Information system (UNEP) |
| IOC | Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission |
| IPCC | Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change |
| IPCS | International Programme on Chemical Safety |
| IPM | integrated pest management |
| IRPTC | International Register of Potentially Toxic Chemicals |
| ITC | International Tin Council |
| ITTO | International Tropical Timber Organization |
| IUCN | International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources |
| MARPOL | International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships |
| OECD | Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development |
| PGRFA | plant genetic resources for agriculture |
| PIC | prior informed consent procedure |
| SADCC | South African Development Co-ordination Conference |
| SARD | sustainable agriculture and rural development |
| UNCTAD | United Nations Conference on Trade and Development |
| UNDP | United Nations Development Programme |
| UNDRO | Office of the United Nations Disaster Relief Coordinator |
| UNEP | United Nations Environment Programme |
| UNESCO | United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization |
| UNFPA | United Nations Population Fund |
| UNICEF | United Nations Children's Fund |
| UNIDO | United Nations Industrial Development Organization |
| UNU | United Nations University |
| WCP | World Climate Programme (WMO/UNEP/ICSU/UNESCO) |
| WFC | World Food Council |
| WHO | World Health Organization |
| WMO | World Meteorological Organization |
| WWF | World Wide Fund for Nature (also called World Wildlife Fund) |
| WWW | World Weather Watch (WMO) |
The countries of the ESCWA region are characterized by great differences of surface area, natural resources endowment, population, income level of socio-economic development and so on. The environmental degradation of the region is continuing in many areas. However, the regions' identity, shaped by a similar environment and ecosystems, as well as a common heritage and history, compels ESCWA countries to find remedies for the underlying causes of environmental degradation.
During the decades of the 1960s and 1970s, economic growth in the ESCWA region was the highest in the world, primarily due to oil exports. During these years, in a drive for self-sufficiency, the region embarked on a strategy of industrial and agricultural protectionism supported by trade barriers, a strategy encouraged by publicly subsidized energy, water, and agro-chemicals. However, the economic growth of most ESCWA countries during the 1980s witnessed slow or even negative growth, due to falling oil prices. By the 1990s, many ESCWA governments, in their attempt to compensate for the "lost decade", initiated economic reform programmes to improve resource efficiency and encourage private sector growth. In this process, however, the ESCWA region came face to face with the unsustainable legacy of its development strategy, in which unsustainable use of natural resources and widespread environmental degradation were caused by: massive extraction and inefficient use of water for irrigation, encouraged by low or non-cost water and lack of incentives for conservation and allocation to higher value uses; lack of adequate natural resources tenure rights and population, combined with rapid population growth and urbanization; lack of cost recovery by water and sanitation services, which has constrained finances available for extending and improving the provision of services; energy policies with non accountability that continue to supply fuel oil with a high sulfur content and leaded gasoline; high energy consumption in relation to economic output by low energy prices; high polluting public enterprises still responsible for the bulk of industrial air and water pollution; and old, fuel-inefficient and highly polluting vehicle fleets, the replacement of which is discouraged by high import barriers and in particular in populated countries of the region.
Today, as many of the ESCWA countries move towards economic reform and trade integration among themselves and with neighboring countries, particularly the European Union, the region is facing many environmental challenges, such as:
. An increasing number of people are exposed to urban air pollution caused by dust, particulates, lead, and sulfur dioxide; . Most countries already consume more freshwater resources than can be renewed, relying on the depletion of non-renewable aquifers and/or expensive desalinization of seawater; . An increasing number of people lack safe drinking water (In particular the case of Iraq) and most rural areas of non-GCC countries suffer from the lack of sanitation and drinking water. . Land, pasture, and forest degradation is increasing economic pressure on the rural people of regional countries with agricultural potential;
Such problems of unsustainable development need to be addressed in order to diminish the compounded economic and social costs if left unattended. As such, most ESCWA countries have restructured their environmental institutions with the issuance of environmental guidelines, standards, laws, rules, and regulations for proper environmental management. At the national level, ESCWA countries vary in formulating national environmental strategies for the purpose of integrating environmental dimensions into their development schemes. While prior to UNCED the plans simply concentrated on development strategies, some countries now incorporate environmental policies and resource management principles into their development plans. The attached table reflects various forms of institutions at the national level entrusted with environment and sustainable development in the ESCWA region.
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| Bahrain | Environmental Protection Commission | Ministry of Housing, Municipalities and Environment |
| Egypt | Office of the Prime Minister | Egyptian Environmental Affairs Agency |
| Iraq | National Council for the Protection and Improvement of Environment | Ministry of Health |
| Jordan | Council of Ministers: -Ministry of Municipalities; Rural Affairs and Environment | General Corporation for Environmental Protection |
| Kuwait | Environmental Protection Council | Various Ministries |
| Lebanon | Ministry of Environment | Various Ministries |
| Oman | Council of Ministers | Ministry of Provisional Municipalities and Environment |
| Qatar | Council of Ministers * | Ministry of Municipalities and Agriculture |
| Saudi Arabia | Ministerial Committee on Environment | Meteorology and Environmental Protection Administration |
| Syrian Arab Republic | Ministry of State for Environmental Affairs | General Authority for Environmental |
| United Arab Emirates | Council of the Federation | Federal Environmental Agency |
| West Bank and Gaza Strip | Council of Ministers | Ministry of Agriculture |
| Yemen | Council of Ministers | Environmental Protection |
Source: Based on national sources.
* Permanent Commission for Environmental Protection.
ESCWA countries are aware of the recent increase in the formulation of treaties on environmental protection, which basically involve the formulation of comprehensive umbrella agreements stating the general goals of the parties, but do not impose any mechanisms which oblige them to achieve these goals. International agreements related to biological diversity and natural habitats have been ratified by four countries of the region. The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (Washington, 1973) has been ratified by three countries: Egypt, Jordan and the United Arab Emirates. Agreements relating to the prevention and control of pollution, which include the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (1992), have been ratified by eight ESCWA countries; the International Convention to Combat Desertification in Countries Experiencing Serious Drought and/or Desertification particularly in Africa (1994) has been ratified by four ESCWA countries; the Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal (1989), has been ratified by ten countries, and the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer by nine ESCWA countries.
As can be noted in the attached table, the level of participation by ESCWA countries in international agreements is moderate, reflecting the prevailing status of least developed country (case of Yemen), the UN imposed economic sanctions (Iraq) and, in some cases, lack of support or disagreement with the objectives or specific provisions of treaties. The attached table reflects the status of ESCWA countries ratification of international treaties on the environment, including regional seas programmes initiated by UNEP.
It is clear from this review that sustainable development policy is now a concern of virtually all ESCWA countries. However, the programmes, laws, and institutions that have been created have grown haphazardly and are largely sectoral. In most ESCWA countries, different institutions are responsible for agriculture, water, fisheries, mineral resources, occupational and environmental health, development control, human settlements, industry, transport and tourism. Recognition of the inter-sectoral nature of sustainable development concerns is causing an increasing number of governments to develop cross-cutting policies, laws and institutions, and many are also seeking to bridge the gaps between public and private sectors, and non-government organizations. Within the government, the machinery commonly takes the form of inter-ministerial or interdepartmental committees, while the policies are often expressed in national environmental strategies, developed in consultation with sectoral departments. Even then, sustainable development policies are generally implemented through the traditional sectoral machinery.
National, regional and international actions are clearly closely linked. The articulation of regional programmes and institutions, backed by regional conventions and other legal instruments, will help to extend the shared interest among ESCWA regional countries to protect the environment and promote sustainable development. The increasing recognition of global problems is in turn leading to the rapid growth in international legal instruments concerned with the environment. Again, this growth in international obligations poses serious problems for many ESCWA countries, because the obligations they incur are far from cost or resource free.
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| ESCWA Countries | |||||||||
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| Bahrain | |||||||||
| Egypt | |||||||||
| Iraq | |||||||||
| Jordan | |||||||||
| Kuwait | |||||||||
| Lebanon | |||||||||
| Oman | |||||||||
| Qatar | |||||||||
| Saudi Arabia | |||||||||
| Syrian Arab Republic | |||||||||
| United Arab Emirates | |||||||||
| Yemen |
SOURCE: ESCWA. Based on Various International Treaties on Environment
* UNEP initiated regional seas programmes
AGENDA 21 CHAPTER 3: COMBATING POVERTY
In terms of poverty, the situation varies among ESCWA countries. However, there are few government programmes which help low-income groups to improve their earning potential or their quality of life. In the cities, the crowding of the poor in communities lacking adequate infrastructure and decent housing leads to an accumulation of waste which increases contamination and unsustainable development.
In synthesis, we are witnessing two interacting processes: the consolidation and expansion of methods of development and styles of consumption which are clearly unsustainable, and the generation of poverty. On the other hand, it is increasingly clear that the unsustainable growth followed in the last few decades has generated pockets of poverty in every society with overall effects on the deterioration of the quality of life, increasing unemployment, decreasing labour productivity, and rural migration to towns and cities. The urban areas of middle-income countries of the region, facing an increasing pressure can not always support the increase in migration from the rural areas, leading to the creation of slums and squatter settlements and the continuation of poverty and deprivation cycles (cases of Egypt and Yemen in particular).
To tackle these problems, ESCWA has initiated various activities during 1995-1996 including technical studies on: measurement of poverty in the ESCWA region; poverty in Western Asia: a social perspective; poverty profiles of Lebanon, Iraq, and Palestine; poverty in the Arab World; a conceptual and methodological framework for poverty alleviation in the ESCWA region; women and poverty in the ESCWA region; poverty in Lebanon; problems of social integration in post-war Lebanon under structural adjustment; poverty and housing in the ESCWA region; and the impact of selected macro-economic and social policies on poverty. In sum, these studies conclude that environmental deterioration, population, health conditions and development are inextricably entwined. Unsustainable development will ultimately affect the health of the people. The human cost expressed in poverty, suffering, and avoidable illness and mortality, is the real cause behind poverty in the ESCWA region. The following table, extracted from studies undertaken by ESCWA, reflect poverty indices (1992) for this region.
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| Bahrain | |
| Egypt | |
| Iran | |
| Jordan | |
| Kuwait | |
| Lebanon | |
| Oman | |
| Qatar | |
| Saudi Arabia | |
| Syrian Arab Republic | |
| United Arab Emirates | |
| Republic of Yemen | |
| Western Asia |
Source: ESCWA (1995), Measurement of Poverty in ESCWA Countries. Bakir, M. "Qiyas AL Faqir Duwal Gharbi Asia"
(a) For GCC countries, the total population non-nationals.
(b) The application of the model gives a figure of 21%, which is believed to be over inflated and may be attributed to the low rate of female enrolment in education.
AGENDA 21 CHAPTER 4: CHANGING CONSUMPTION PATTERNS
| No information
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AGENDA 21 CHAPTER 5: DEMOGRAPHIC DYNAMICS AND SUSTAINABILITY
It is commonly believed that demographic patterns and trends such
as population size, growth rates and distribution, have
contributed significantly to shaping the status of development in
the ESCWA region, and to increasing the severity of
environmental problems. However, problems such as desertification,
soil degradation, deforestation, loss of biodiversity,
water and air pollution are also the result of other aspects of the
human condition, such as cultural, social, and economic
status, traditionally acquired technologies, institutional and
legal systems, changing consumption patterns and, above all,
poverty and its impact on attitudes towards resource value.
In terms of demographic patterns, ESCWA countries vary in
population, from little over half a million (Bahrain and
Qatar) to well over 62 million (Egypt). Egypt is the largest
country of the ESCWA region, with 43% of its total
population, followed by Iraq and Yemen (24%), representing the
population affected by economic sanctions (Iraq) and
the least developed country (Yemen). Jordan, Lebanon, Palestine,
and the Syrian Arab Republic, the Western
Mediterranean ESCWA countries, represent 17% of the population,
followed by the GCC countries (16%). Population
growth rates, population density, and urbanization are good
indicators of likely environmental stress. Existing population
growth rates and densities in countries such as Bahrain, Egypt,
Jordan, Lebanon, and Yemen correlate with expected
environmental stress in these countries. This environmental stress
due to rapid population growth and urbanization is
manifested in natural resources deterioration, affecting
particularly the quality of air and water. Another environmental
impact of a rapidly expanding population is the increased pressure
on arable land, both as a result of intensified
agriculture, and the loss of land due to the expansion of human
settlements.
In the area of demographic dynamics and sustainability, the ESCWA
secretariat has initiated several technical studies on:
Demographic and related socio-economic indicators; database for
demographic estimates and projections. Furthermore,
in cooperation with the UNFPA, the secretariat organized an expert
group meeting on population policies and sustainable
development in the Arab region (December 1996).
AGENDA 21 CHAPTER 6: PROTECTING AND PROMOTING HUMAN HEALTH
AGENDA 21 CHAPTER 7: PROMOTING SUSTAINABLE HUMAN SETTLEMENT DEVELOPMENT
In the past two decades, the cities of the ESCWA region have seen
the most radical transformation ever experienced in
their millennia of urban development. Within the space of a single
generation, urban population has increased drastically.
This high growth rate has been fueled by massive rural to urban
migration, prompted by grinding rural poverty and
agricultural land degradation, a consequence of over-cultivation
and over-grazing, induced by an increase in the region's
population.
During the first half of the nineties, about 56 percent of the
population of the region was estimated to live in urban areas.
However, with current growth rates, the region is expected to
become predominantly urban in the next 25 years, with the
proportion of population living in urban areas expected to reach 59
per cent by the year 2000.
(refer to the table below)
Such an increase has considerable implications on human settlement
development, even if present densities are maintained
(countries with urbanization rates over 70% include Bahrain, Iraq,
Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Palestine, Qatar, Saudi
Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates), the overall extent of urban
areas will increase with tremendous pressure on
infrastructure and deterioration of environmental conditions. From
an economic, environmental and social point of view,
waste is a particularly acute problem confronting big cities in the
region. There are a few fairly well known examples
which can be mentioned with regard to economic waste. The first
relates to the part of urban material endowment (roads,
for example) whose size is not determined on the basis of actual
hours of peak use. Another example relates to the
premature obsolescence of some urban property in expensive areas of
cities in which buildings are razed although they are
still in good condition, and replaced by others which allow for
denser occupation of the land, hence gaining greater
financial return from it (Cases of Cairo, Beirut, and Damascus).
In conclusion, the issues of urbanization and urban settlement
development are closely linked to the state of the
environment and poverty. Although this is a worldwide fact, in the
case of ESCWA region, the link between environment,
poverty and urbanization is more pronounced due to the specific
socio-economic and demographic characteristics of the
region, and the priority given by ESCWA countries to the objectives
of the various programme areas outlined in chapter 7
of Agenda 21. These include also rapid urbanization and economic
growth of large cities and coastal areas, very low
arable land, and the persistence of poverty in rural and urban
areas of middle-income countries of the region. To remedy
this situation, ESCWA has recently undertaken the following
research activities: technological and social aspects of
upgrading and revitalizing settlements; regional perspective of
human settlements in ESCWA countries; proceedings of the
expert group meeting in preparation for the UN Conference on Human
Settlements, Habitat II; and poverty in West Asia:
extent and measures for its alleviation: crisis, poverty, and
shelter.
| ESCWA Country |
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| Bahrain | |||
| Egypt | |||
| Iraq | |||
| Jordan | |||
| Kuwait | |||
| Lebanon | |||
| Oman | |||
| Palestine | |||
| Qatar | |||
| Saudi Arabia | |||
| Syria | |||
| United Arab Emirates | |||
| Yemen | |||
| ESCWA Region |
Souces: United Nations and World Urbanization prospects 1994.
(*) The figures apply to Gaza Strp only.
AGENDA 21 CHAPTER 8: INTEGRATING ENVIRONMENT AND DEVELOPMENT IN DECISION-MAKING
The prevailing systems for decision-making in many ESCWA countries
tend to separate economic, technological, social,
and environmental factors at the policy, planning, and management
levels. This influences the actions of all groups in
society, including government, industry, and individuals, and has
important implications for the efficiency and
sustainability of development. An adjustment or even restriction of
decision-making, in the light of each country's specific
conditions, may be necessary to accord priority to environmental
and technological concerns and a full integration of these
factors. Significant changes in the institutional stuctures of
governments would be necessary to enable a more systematic
consideration of the environment when decisions are made on
economic, industrial, technological and other sectoral
policies. New forms of dialogue should also be developed for
achieving better integration among regional, national, and
local institutions representing industry, science and research,
development centers, academics, environmental groups, and
the public, in developing effective approaches to the integration
of environment and development in decision making. It is
for this reason that a number of ESCWA countries have set up
interministerial working groups or commissions
empowered to ensure effective cooperation among all government
departments concerned.
More extensive use of analytical tools for improving
decision-making, such as cost-benefit analysis, environmental
impact
assessment, and environmental indicators and accounting, can also
contribute to policy integration by making both private
and public decision makers more aware of the environmental
consequences of their actions. The EIA, as an environmental
management tool is gaining popularity in the ESCWA region. However,
the use of environmental audit has not yet
become common practice due to various reasons, including the
reluctance to release information pertaining to their
environmental records and the possibilities of legal requirements
to protect the society at large from harmful pollutants
(Case of Lebanon).
AGENDA 21 CHAPTER 9: PROTECTION OF THE ATMOSPHERE
Environmental problems of industrial origin and issues regarding
atmosphere are a relatively recent phenomenon in the
ESCWA region, although some countries, such as Egypt, Iraq, Saudi
Arabia, and the Syrian Arab Republic have for a
long time experienced the adverse impacts of industrialization in
certain parts of their region. The nature, scope, and
extent of the impact of industrial development, and hence the
protection of the atmosphere vary in different areas of the
region.
At the policy statement level, all ESCWA countries seem to have
acted to abate industrial pollution, promote new and
renewable energy sources, facilitate cleaner transportation fleet
and protect the atmosphere. However, there has been a
failure to translate these statements into action depending on the
socio-economic situation of individual countries. Some
policy makers in the middle-income group of countries in the region
disregard protection of the atmosphere, due to
economic hardship, unemployment and poverty, regardless of its
environmental impacts. Furthermore, while
environmental consciousness is taking root, it is happening rather
slowly in the industrial and business sectors in the
region. The private industrial sector in the region has neglected
adopting environmentally friendly technologies and
incorporating issues regarding the protection of the atmosphere in
their production process. This reflects the low-level of
research and development which is undertaken by private firms for
the development of environmental technology
research. The major obstacles to the "greening" of industry,
transport, energy and business in the region are caused by
existing environmental policies which do not correct biases caused
by the underpricing of natural resources; they do not
ensure that new industries and plants employ the cleanest
technology available, or that existing plants are upgraded as
necessary and practicable, and they do not promote "green"
consumerism.
AGENDA 21 CHAPTER 10: INTEGRATED APPROACH TO THE PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT OF LAND RESOURCES
The land use pattern in the ESCWA region has undergone continuous
changes, manifesting the impact of the complex
interplay of socio-economic, political, and technological forces.
A comparison of land use patterns in ESCWA countries
with the rest of the world shows the scarcity of arable land in the
region. While the world's average of arable and
cropland is 11 percent, it stands at 4.3 percent in the ESCWA
region, compared to 15 percent in the Asia-Pacific region.
The desert terrain and other unfavorable agro-ecological land is
about 63 percent of the total area of the ESCWA region.
Furthermore, the limited arable land is suffering from intense
development and population pressure. There is a tendency
towards more intensive and extensive cultivation in countries with
the most croplands, which also have high population
densities. The population pressure on arable land is noticeable in
Egypt, Jordan, Iraq, Lebanon, the Syrian Arab Republic,
and Yemen. Irrigated land is being cultivated year-round, with
increasing applications of water, fertilizer, and pesticides.
Simultaneously, large areas of fertile land are being taken out of
production for urban, transport and industrial needs,
land of low quality is being overused as herds overgraze ranges,
and marginal farmers cultivate low rainfall areas without
adequate following or fertilization.
This pressure on the land is being felt on a region where the land
surface itself is generally fragile, often already
degraded, and subject to high levels of natural erosion exacerbated
by severe sand storms and population densities.
Nonetheless, the historical process that has shaped the ESCWA
region's landscape is continuing at an accelerating rate and
great socio-economic cost. Land previously under agricultural
production has given way to urban settings, and new areas
of cultivation are unlikely to compensate for the loss of
agricultural land to urbanization and related transport networks.
Furthermore, expensive land reclamation and intensification efforts
are proceeding as productive and scarce arable lands
are irreversibly lost to urbanization, municipalities and
industrial uses. The new and little reported expansion in arable
land area in the ESCWA countries has taken place at the expense of
natural rangeland.
On policy issues, regional countries differ, depending on their
economic status, availability of resources and population
pressure, to the degree of moving from current unsustainable
management of land resources to a sustainable and integrated
management of the same resources. Most ESCWA countries are giving
priority to land management to preserve their food
security status and to strengthen and improve institutional
mechanisms for land management resources.
AGENDA 21 CHAPTER 11: COMBATING DEFORESTATION
The forest and woodland in the ESCWA region occupies about 1.03
percent of the region's total area. The distribution of
forests varies among the countries of the region, depending on
physical, ecological and social factors. Four countries,
including Lebanon, the Syrian Arab Republic, Iraq, Jordan and to
some extent Yemen have forest areas in the region.
However, deforestation continues to be a problem of serious concern
in Iraq, Lebanon, and Yemen. Furthermore, forest
cover has declined dramatically in the countries of the region
during the past decades. Countries such as Iraq, Lebanon,
and Yemen have suffered extensive loss of forests accompanied by
soil erosion, as a result of conflicts and civil war,
which have caused widespread environmental problems with negative
socio-economic and ecological consequences.
As far as policy objectives of chapter 11 of Agenda 21 are
concerned, there is diversity of forest policies among the
countries of the region, depending on their awareness of future and
current priorities. At the national level, the main focus
of concerned countries has been on forestry plans, rules and
regulations, institutional developments and implementation of
programmes related to proper management and protection of forests.
Some countries such as Jordan, Iraq, the Syrian
Arab Republic, and Lebanon have made provisions in their national
development plans for protection of forests. Other
countries' concerns are reflected in the establishment of
departments relating to forests and environment.
AGENDA 21 CHAPTER 12: MANAGING FRAGILE ECOSYSTEMS: COMBATING DESERTIFICATION AND DROUGHT
More than three quarters of the ESCWA region is desert, and an
increasing part of the permanent pasture areas is subject
to erosion because of reduced vegetation cover. In addition, much
of the cropland is losing its inherent productivity
because of poor agricultural practices. Soil erosion is another
aspect of the desertification process in the region, which
begins with intensive livestock grazing. Furthermore, dry land
salinity is causing serious problems in Western Asia, due to
reduced evaporation, allowing salts to concentrate in the low-lying
parts of the landscape. In Egypt, for example, an
estimated 32 percent of the Nile Delta and 30 percent of the Nile
Valley are affected by salination and water logging,
lowering or totally eliminating their potential for crop
production. Much of Egypt's salination is recent, the result of
excessive water use and inadequate drainage. In Iraq, salinity and
water logging affect more than 50 percent of the lower
Rafadain Plain. In the Syrian Arab Republic about 50 percent of the
irrigated land in the Euphrates Valley is seriously
affected by salinity and water logging.
The problem of land degradation in the ESCWA region's arid and
semi-arid areas (desertification), is being tackled
through a variety of measures including increased vegetation cover,
plants for dune stabilization, and improved land use
practices. The secretariat of ESCWA, in cooperation with UNEP and
regional countries, has produced various
desertification control plans to address the issue through
appropriate policy intervention, along with national authorities
and community involvement.
The United Nations Conference on Desertification (Nairobi, 1977)
played a major role in increasing awareness of the
serious threats to land from unsustainable exploitation and
anthropogenic pressures at both national and international
levels. It also resulted in the initiation of several actions at
these levels to arrest further spread of desertification. During
1993-1995, the ESCWA secretariat completed the following related
technical reports: Desertification control project,
integrated natural resources management for sustainable development
in Bahrain; The national plan of action to combat
desertification in the Sultanate of Oman; The national plan of
action to combat desertification in the United Arab
Emirates; and Resource conservation policies and strategies for
agriculture in the Syrian Arab Republic.
A recent major international achievement is the development of the
International Convention to Combat Desertification,
which was initiated at UNCED. The convention was developed through
negotiations in Paris on June 18, 1994. Most
ESCWA countries have adhered to this convention. Furthermore, ESCWA
participates actively in the deliberations of the
Steering Committee on Desertification of the Council of Arab
Ministers responsible for the environment. This Committee
meets annually and is an umbrella network for government
representatives and other regional research and training
institutions concerned with desertification. However, considering
the severity and complexity of desertification and the
magnitude of its negative consequences, current efforts to promote
preventive approaches for the control of land
degradation are far too inadequate and uneven in the ESCWA region
as a whole.
AGENDA 21 CHAPTER 13: MANAGING FRAGILE ECOSYSTEMS: SUSTAINABLE MOUNTAIN DEVELOPMENT
AGENDA 21 CHAPTER 14: PROMOTING SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT
Among the causes of unsustainable agricultural practices and
degradation of agricultural land in the region are the
inadequate or inappropriate policies which include pricing,
subsidies, and tax policies which have encouraged the
excessive and often uneconomic use of inputs such as fertilizers
and pesticides, and over exploitation of land.
These policies, together with supporting economic and financial
policies, have contributed to a rate of depleting of land
and water resources in many ESCWA countries which have not been
sustainable in the long run. Furthermore, although
various other economic and social factors are responsible for land
degradation in the ESCWA region, the deterioration of
agricultural land is leading to a decrease in food security in many
ESCWA countries in the short run, and to over
exploitation of the natural resource base, on which agriculture
depends in the long run. Taking population increase into
consideration, the per capita arable land and, consequently, per
capita food production in some ESCWA countries are
deteriorating further than its level in the seventies. This
situation is particularly visible in Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, the
Syrian
Arab Republic and Yemen, where the decrease in per capita food
production was partly due to the inefficiencies of land
use, fragmentation and reduction in arable land per agricultural
population (refer to the table below).
In line with promoting the main programme areas relevant to the
ESCWA countries, the secretariat, in cooperation with
the Council of Arab Ministers Responsible for the Environment
(CAMRE), organized an inter-Arab regions conference
(Cairo, september 1994) on sustainable agriculture and rural
development. The broad objectives of the meeting were: (i)
to increase the awareness and mobilize the agricultural sector to
implement related chapters of Agenda 21 and Arab
Programmes for Sustainable Development (APSD); (ii) to promote
priority programmes, at the national level, related to
chapter 17 of Agenda 21 and other relevant Agenda 21 programme
areas; (iii) promote inter-regional and regional
cooperation for the implementation of (APSD) and; (iv) to exchange
views and experience in preparing plans and
programmes of action related to (APSD), and the identification of
priority areas of joint action programmes for the
implementation of chapter 10, 11, 12, 14, and 15 of Agenda 21. The
recommendations of the meeting covered issues of:
(i) macro-economic adjustment and agricultural policies; (ii)
regional institutional framework for sustainable agriculture
and rural development, (iii) human development and participation;
(iv) land-use development; (v) water conservation and
management; (vi) chemical uses in agriculture; and (vii) use of
modern technologies.
At the secretariat level, ESCWA continues its capacity building for
member countries in addition to training, field projects
and promotion of integrated agricultural development along the main
objectives of chapter 14 of Agenda 21. At the
national level, ESCWA countries differ in priority settings and
initiatives according to their socio-economic and
agricultural realities and visions.
| Egypt | |||||
| Iraq | |||||
| Jordan | |||||
| Oman | |||||
| Syrian Arab Republic | |||||
| Yemen (former PDRY) | |||||
| Yemen (former YAR) | |||||
AGENDA 21 CHAPTER 15: CONSERVATION OF BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY
The first organized societies evolved in the ESCWA region
(Egyptian, Babylonian, Phoenician, Byzantine, and Arab
Empires). They all prospered because their people mastered the
skills of irrigation, agriculture, plant and animal
domestication, hunting and fishing. Their activities covered a
mosaic of landscapes that included desert, oases, dry land,
wet land, mountains, plateaus, planes, lakes, marshland, and
coastlines along the Indian Ocean, the Mediterranean Sea,
the Red Sea, the Gulf of Aden, and the Persian Gulf. However, the
excessive use of these resources caused their depletion
or degradation of the habitat, where the process of desertification
started. A number of these early cultures made efforts to
allocate and control the use of diminishing resources in their arid
region. These measures included, for example, the strict
rationing of water, access to grazing and the cutting of trees,
firewood collection and agricultural land ownership.
Unfortunately these control measures did not stop natural resource
degradation. Hence, in the ESCWA region widespread
negative impacts on biodiversity are occurring mainly through
habitat destruction caused by the pressures of population
growth, ignorance, poverty and economic development.
Due to the lack of accurate information in many ESCWA countries,
there is uncertainty regarding the present status and
trends of biodiversity. This deficiency is now being addressed by
various organizations, both at the national and regional
levels. On the whole, there is little information on species and
reliable data is generally limited to certain mammals and
birds. The population status of these groups is used as an
indication of species diversity. Species inventories have not been
completed, but are currently being undertaken in a number of
countries in the region (i.e. Jordan, Oman, Saudi Arabia,
and Yemen). Furthermore, some ESCWA countries have ratified the
Convention on Biological Diversity and the
Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild
Fauna and Flora. The status of ESCWA countries on
these two conventions was reflected in the first part of this
report.
In response to international pressure and national awareness, many
ESCWA countries have began to establish a system
of protected areas in an effort to combat habitat destruction and
loss of biodiversity. However, the administration of
national parks and protected areas are under various public
authorities with conflicting rather than complimentary plans of
action. According to the latest (1995) List of National Parks and
Protected Areas, protected areas total about 251 million
hectares or just about 5.4 percent of the total in the ESCWA
region.
In October 1995, ESCWA participated in planning and convening "The
Meeting of the Arab Expert Group on Biodiversity
in Arab Countries", to underline the programme objectives of
chapter 16 of Agenda 21 and the Convention on
Biodiversity and its implications for the Arab countries. This
meeting focused on the following themes: the state of
biodiversity in the Arab countries, according to available data;
ways and means for biodiversity conservation in the Arab
region ; biodiversity in the context of sustainable development;
and the institutional and legal framework as means for
capacity building to enhance biodiversity conservation in the Arab
countries. The Arab Center for the Study of Arid Zones
and Dry Lands (ACSAD), which acted as technical secretariat for the
meeting was requested to follow-up on the
recommendations of the meeting including the initiation of a
Pan-Arab Biological and Landscape Diversity Strategy.
Furthermore, the Arab countries were requested to establish a
national committee to coordinate among various national
institutions matters related to (i) National policy and action
plans for the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity;
(ii) Establishment of natural habitats and national parks to
preserve different elements of biodiversity for future sustainable
utilization; (iii) Adoption of a national strategy for public
awareness, education and technical training for the preservation
of biodiversity. At the regional level, the need for clear, precise
and practical guiding principles was recognized. In this
context, reference was also made to the need to initiate an
innovative, pro-active and cooperative approach to limiting the
degradation of biodiversity in the Arab region. Furthermore,
another follow-up
meeting is scheduled for 1997 to elaborate on the Pan-Arab
Biodiversity Strategy.
AGENDA 21 CHAPTER 16: ENVIRONMENTALLY SOUND MANAGEMENT OF BIOTECHNOLOGY
AGENDA 21 CHAPTER 17: PROTECTION OF THE OCEANS, ALL KINDS OF SEAS, INCLUDING ENCLOSED AND SEMI-ENCLOSED SEAS, AND COASTAL AREAS AND THE PROTECTION, RATIONAL USE AND DEVELOPMENT OF THEIR LIVING RESOURCES
AGENDA 21 CHAPTER 18: PROTECTION OF THE QUALITY AND SUPPLY OF FRESHWATER RESOURCES: APPLICATION OF INTEGRATED APPROACHES TO THE DEVELOPMENT, MANAGEMENT AND USE OF WATER RESOURCES
Water allocation from the Nile river in Egypt is estimated at 56.5
billion cubic meters (bcm) per year, while the estimates
for the Euphrates and Tigris in the Syrian Arab Republic and Iraq
are 26.8 bcm and 76.9 bcm respectively. The average
surface water flow in Lebanon is estimated at 2.5 bcm, while for
Jordan it is 0.875 bcm. The major problem associated
with the management of surface water is the transboundary nature of
rivers shared by member and non-member countries.
Typical examples are the Nile and Euphrates rivers, where the
headwaters are located outside the ESCWA region. Lack
of formal agreements for sharing flow from the Euphrates and the
Tigris has created serious shortcomings in efficient
water utilization. A number of large dams have been constructed on
these rivers to regulate the water flow. The water
stored behind the dams is the main source for domestic, irrigation,
and industrial purposes in Egypt, Iraq, and the Syrian
Arab Republic, and to a limited extent in Jordan and Lebanon.
Surface water in the extremely arid GCC countries and
Yemen consist of runoff generated by flash floods. The average
annual volume of water generated from floods is
estimated at 5.3 bcm. The intermittent nature of the flow renders
it an unreliable source. The total average annual water
generated in Saudi Arabia and Yemen is estimated at 2.2 bcm and 2.1
bcm respectively. The amount of surface water
available in Oman and the United Arab Emirates is estimated at 0.92
bcm and 0.12 bcm, respectively. The remaining
GCC countries have only negligible amounts of surface runoff.
Groundwater resources in the ESCWA region consist of water stored
in both shallow and deep aquifers. Carbonate
aquifers are predominant in Jordan, Lebanon, and the Syrian Arab
Republic, while sandstone is predominant in northern
Egypt and southern Iraq. Shallow quaternary wadi deposits located
in the costal plains and inland basins, as well as the
alluviums of rive flood plains, contain groundwater of good quality
that is frequently recharged by perennial river flows.
The shallow aquifers in Egypt's Nile delta, Iraq, Jordan, Lebanon,
the Syrian Arab Republic, and the West Bank hold
groundwater reserves adequate to partially meet their respective
water requirements. This region also contains aquifers of
large aerial extent in which significant reserves of groundwater,
with varying degrees of salinity, are stored. Water quality
in relation to salinity and its location at considerable depths,
however, determine how the water can be used. Groundwater
reserves of the shallow alluvial aquifers also represent one of the
main sources for many of the countries of the Arabian
Peninsula. Alluvial deposits along the main wadi channels and flood
plains of drainage basins make up the shallow
groundwater system in Kuwait, Oman, Saudi Arabia, the United Arab
Emirates and Yemen. Groundwater in the shallow
aquifers is the only renewable water source in these countries.
Another main source of water in Bahrain, Kuwait, Qatar
and Saudi Arabia is the non-renewable fossil groundwater stored in
the sedimentary deep aquifers. These aquifers store
significant amounts of groundwater that are thousands of years old.
The major aquifers are the Saq,
Tabuk, Wajid, Minjur-druma, Wacia-Biyadh, Dammam, Um Er-Radhuma,
and Neogene. These aquifers cover two-
thirds of Saudi Arabia and some of them extend into Bahrain,
Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, the United Arab Emirates, and
Yemen, as well as Iraq, Jordan, and the Syrian Arab Republic.
A survey of the availability of water resources
indicates that there are large variations from country to country
within the
ESCWA region, depending on the physiographical and hydrogeological
setting. Among ESCWA countries, Egypt, Iraq,
the Syrian Arab Republic, and Lebanon, have relatively dependable
surface water sources, in the form of major rivers and
springs. River flow in these countries originates both within and
outside of national boundaries. In addition to available
surface water, the water supply is supplemented through extraction
from groundwater reserves in Egypt, Jordan, Lebanon,
the Syrian Arab Republic, and the West Bank and Gaza. Jordan is
faced with water deficits, and the West Bank and Gaza
have limited surface water and renewable groundwater sources to
meet their needs. Surface water and groundwater
reserves are frequently renewed through rainfall, perennial river
flow, and floods. The Nile in Egypt, the Euphrates and
Tigris in Iraq and the Syrian Arab Republic, the Orentis and Latani
in Lebanon and the Syrian Arab Republic, and the
lower Jordan river in Jordan, represent major water sources for
domestic, industrial, and agricultural requirements within
these countries. In contrast, the GCC countries and Yemen are
characterized by a harsh desert environment and are
devoid of rivers and lakes. Their water resources consist of
limited quantities of runoff resulting from flash floods,
groundwater in the alluvial aquifers, and extensive groundwater
reserves in the deep sedimentary formations. Some of
these countries also rely on non-conventional water sources such as
desalination of sea and brackish water, and limited use
of renovated waste water.
Non-conventional water sources are being utilized to supplement
natural sources in order to satisfy water requirements in many
of the ESCWA member countries. Brackish and sea water desalination
has also become a viable alternative to meet raising
demand. The GCC countries rely largely on desalination to help
satisfy domestic water demand, and during the last 20 years
these countries have become increasingly dependent on desalination
to meet their water supply requirements. They have
become, by necessity, world leaders in desalination of sea water
and brackish groundwater for domestic consumption. The high
salinity of groundwater in most GCC countries has compelled them to
rely on desalinated water. Current desalinated water
output, produced from numerous desalination plants located in
Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Saudi Arabia, the United Arab
Emirates, and Yemen, reached 1.7 bcm in 1995, compared to a
world-wide capacity of 5.7 bcm. Limited amounts of
desalinated water are being produced in Egypt, Iraq, and the Syrian
Arab Republic, mainly through the private sector, in
comparison to the GCC countries where desalination is relatively
more common. These capacities cover all desalination plants
and include numerous units in private sector ownership for
industrial and other purposes. Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, and the United
Arab Emirates, rely on large-sale plants capable of producing large
volumes of water. Small plants with an estimated
production of 33 mcm exist in Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, and the Syrian
Arab Republic.
Existing waste water treatment facilities in many of the ESCWA
member countries face difficulties in handling the ever
increasing volumes of waste water generated by increased water
consumption and urbanization. Waste water discharged from
major urban centers is polluting shallow alluvial aquifers and the
coastline, as well as causing urban water tables to rise. The
main emphasis has been simply to dispose of waste water rather than
to treat and reuse it, due to the extensive capital
investment required for water treatment systems. Planning for full
utilization of treated effluent remains in the early stages, and
the regional treatment capacity is sufficient to handle only 40
percent of the domestic waste water generated. However, reuse of
renovated waste water is being done in varying degrees for urban
landscaping and irrigation. The total volume of reused
renovated waste water and drainage water in the region is estimated
at about 5.5 bcm, which is far less than the treated and
untreated volume usually available from domestic water consumption.
Reuse of treated effluent is currently estimated at 60
mcm in Egypt,
52 mcm in Jordan, and 50 mcm in the Syrian Arab Republic.
Approximately 4.8 bcm of drainage water is being used for
irrigation in Egypt. The use of waste water ranges from 217 mcm in
Saudi Arabia to 9.1 mcm in Yemen. The ratio of reuse to
domestic and industrial water requirements range from 27.7 to 30
percent. In the region as a whole, renovated waste water
meets a small fraction of water demand. Water resources estimates,
based on various hydrological and hydrogeological
investigations carried out in the region, are given in the attached
table.
(cont.)
|
|
| ||||||
| Bahrain | ||||||||
| Egypt | ||||||||
| Iraq | ||||||||
| Jordan | ||||||||
| Kuwait | ||||||||
| Lebanon | ||||||||
| Oman | ||||||||
| Qatar | ||||||||
| Saudi Arabia | ||||||||
| Syrian Arab Republic | ||||||||
| United Arab Emirates | ||||||||
| West Bank and Gaza | ||||||||
| Yemen | ||||||||
| Total | ||||||||
Source: Compiled by the ESCWA Secretariat from country papers and international sources, 1994 and 1995.
(*) Demographic and related Socio-economic Data Sheets for the Countries of ESCWA, No. 8, 1995
(**) The flow of the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers will be reduced by upstream abstraction in Turkey.
(***) Shallow Aquifer Groundwater Reserve with Varying Water Quality.
NA Information not Available
(cont.) The quality of drinking water and sanitation services in most of the ESCWA member countries has improved over the last 10 years, with the exception of Iraq, Lebanon, and Yemen. Progress has been made in achieving targets established for most urban areas. However, rural communities in the ESCWA region are still inadequately serviced in terms of safe drinking water, sanitation facilities and easy accessibility. The United Nations economic sanctions on Iraq have had an adverse impact on water supply and sanitation facilities. Availability of safe drinking water and sanitation is also a major problem in Gaza. The armed conflict in Yemen had a detrimental impact on water supplies and sanitation facilities. This situation will be further aggravated by the expected increase in urbanization to nearly 75 percent by the year 2025, which will exert greater pressure on water supply and sanitation facilities.
Imbalances between increasing water demand and existing limited water resources are being experienced by most of the ESCWA member countries. During the last decade, water demand in all sectors has increased dramatically as a result of high population growth, improvement of living standards, and efforts to achieve self sufficiency in food and industrial production. Currently, agriculture is the primary water consumer. Industrial water demand varies in the countries of the region, but it is roughly equivalent to domestic water requirements. Drainage and renovated waste water partially meets irrigation requirements in Egypt, Jordan, and the Syrian Arab Republic. Domestic and industrial water requirements for most GCC countries are met through desalination and a limited amount of groundwater from both shallow and deep aquifers. Yemen relies solely on groundwater resources for all sectors. In all GCC countries and Yemen, agricultural requirements are met through extraction of water from shallow alluvial aquifers located in the costal strips and inland basins, and from deep aquifers covering most of the Arabian Peninsula. In Saudi Arabia, rapid expansion of agricultural activities during the last two decades has resulted in substantial increases in water demand, leading to extensive mining of deep aquifers. Likewise, agricultural water demand has sharply increased in Bahrain, Oman, Qatar, and the United Arab Emirates, where groundwater reserves are being mined. This agricultural development is a direct result of government policies encouraging self-sufficiency in food production. Government incentives and subsidies have made it possible for large areas to be cultivated, placing a great strain on existing groundwater resources. Total water demand for agricultural, industrial, and domestic purpose in the ESCWA region reached 139 bcm in 1990, with the major consumers being Egypt, Iraq, and the Syrian Arab Republic. Water supply requirements are expected to reach 179.4 bcm by the end of the century, and 244.2 bcm by the year 2025, as shown in the table below. Agriculture, followed by industry, account for most of the water consumed.
|
| COUNTRY | ||||||||||||
| Bahrain | ||||||||||||
| Egypt | ||||||||||||
| Iraq | ||||||||||||
| Jordan | ||||||||||||
| Kuwait | ||||||||||||
| Lebanon | ||||||||||||
| Oman | ||||||||||||
| Qatar | ||||||||||||
| Saudi Arabia | ||||||||||||
| Syrian Arab Republic | ||||||||||||
| United Arab Emirates | ||||||||||||
| West Bank and Gaza | ||||||||||||
| Yemen | ||||||||||||
| Total | ||||||||||||
Source: Compiled by the ESCWA Secretariat from Country Papers and International Sources, 1994 and 1995.
(1) Domestic
(2) Agriculture
(3) Industry
| (Cont.)
Water requirements for the agricultural sector accounts for most of the water used in the ESCWA region as a whole, with demand estimated at 117.8 bcm in 1990, with a combined demand of 98.2 bcm for the group of countries that include Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, Lebanon, the Syrian Arab Republic, and the West Bank and Gaza, and 19.6 bcm for the group of countries including Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates, and Yemen. In 1990, the percentage of agricultural demand ranged from 62 to 90 percent of the total water demand in the northern ESCWA region, while in the south it ranged from 21 to 93 percent. Agricultural water demand in the ESCWA region is projected to reach 150.4 bcm and 187.5 bcm in the years 2000 and 2025, as shown in the previous table. Industrial activities in most of the ESCWA member countries have also contributed to an increase in total water requirements, although not as dramatically as the agricultural sector. Industrial water demand reached 10.5 bcm in 1990 in Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, the Syrian Arab Republic, and West Bank and Gaza, and only 0.3 bcm in the GCC countries and Yemen. The percentage of industrial water demand ranged from 0.4 to 11.3 percent, with lower percentages reported for the GCC countries. Countries with relatively well established industrial infrastructures include Egypt, Iraq, and the Syrian Arab Republic. The industrial sector is still fairly limited in the southern region. Industrial demand is projected to reach 14.6 bcm and 25.6 bcm in the years 2000 and 2025 respectively, with the highest demand in Egypt, Iraq, and the Syrian Arab Republic. Industrial production in most of the ESCWA countries is geared towards consumer goods and petroleum refinement. Many industries in the region, especially in Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, Saudi Arabia, and the Syrian Arab Republic, rely on raw materials derived from agricultural products. Most industrial activities are confined close to major urban centers, requiring competition with the domestic sector to satisfy water requirements. In urban areas with concentrated industrial activities, this sector represents the major water consumer in relation to domestic requirements. In most of the GCC countries, field development and petrochemical industries are considered to be water-use intensive. Industries in Egypt and Iraq utilize surface water from major rivers, while the remaining ESCWA member countries rely on groundwater supplemented with surface water, desalination, and a limited amount of recycled water. Domestic water requirements represent only a small fraction of the total water requirements in the ESCWA member countries. In 1990, domestic requirements were estimated at 10.5 bcm, which is expected to reach 14.4 and 31.1 bcm in the years 2000 and 2025 respectively , as a result of increased population growth and improved living standards. Domestic demand has been estimated at 8.7 bcm for countries with large populations such as Egypt, Iraq, the Syrian Arab Republic, and Saudi Arabia, which represents 4.7 to 34 percent of the total water demand. In comparison, domestic demand for the remaining countries was estimated at 1.7 bcm, accounting for 5.8 to 77 percent of the total demand, as shown in the following table.
|
| Bahrain | |||||||||
| Egypt | |||||||||
| Iraq | |||||||||
| Jordan | |||||||||
| Kuwait | |||||||||
| Lebanon | |||||||||
| Oman | |||||||||
| Qatar | |||||||||
| Saudi Arabia | |||||||||
| Syrian Arab Republic | |||||||||
| United Arab Emirates | |||||||||
| West Bank and Gaza | |||||||||
| Yemen | |||||||||
| Total | |||||||||
Source: Compiles by the ESCWA Secretariat from Papers and International sources, 1994 and 1995.
| (Cont.) Based on current trends and projections, shortages are expected to increase as a result of increased demand and limited renewable supplies in most ESCWA countries. Current water resources such as perennial surface water, renewable groundwater, desalination, and reclaimed waste water are insufficient to meet expected water demand. Thus, in order to offset the imbalance between supply and expected demand, mining of groundwater, especially from the deep aquifers, may be required to meet agricultural and other demands. Expected domestic and industrial demand increases in the next 30 years may also require the construction of additional desalination and treatment plants to produce water and treat waste water, for most countries in the region, especially the GCC countries, unless strict integrated management approaches, including water conservation measures and effective management schemes, are implemented and good quality groundwater is used solely for domestic and industrial use. If present domestic consumption patterns continue unaltered, most countries of the ESCWA region will be required to allocate financial resources to the construction of hydraulic structures, distribution systems, and the construction of new desalination plants and support facilities with capacities capable of handling increased demand. A large number of waste treatment plants will also be required to handle the resulting wastes. This huge investment may result in a considerable economic strain, especially in those countries with limited financial resources. However, proper planning and integrated development, and management of water resources, along with just allocation of shared water resources through equitable agreements, will contribute significantly towards alleviating water deficits. Many countries of the region have already taken steps towards the implementation of management programmes, including proper planning and conservation measures, to promote reduced water consumption and optimal allocation of water resources.
As far as the implementation of the objectives of various programme areas outlined in chapter 18 of Agenda 21, each ESCWA country has its priority depending on the national situation of its water supply/demand and future forecast. Along this line, the ESCWA secretariat, in addition to rendering technical assistance for capacity building in the area of water management, undertook implementation of the following activities during 1995-1996: report on the introduction of appropriate mechanisms to promote regional cooperation in the water sector; implementation of a field project to investigate the shared basalt aquifers in the Syrian Arab Republic and Jordan; assessment of water resources quality in the ESCWA region; and convened an expert group meeting on the implementation of chapter 18 of Agenda 21 for integrated water management in the region. Furthermore, the secretariat organized two training courses: (i) for using remote sensing data and GIS techniques in hydrology and hydrogeology, and (ii) an ad hoc expert group meeting on water legislation.
|
AGENDA 21 CHAPTER 19: ENVIRONMENTALLY SOUND MANAGEMENT OF TOXIC CHEMICALS, INCLUDING PREVENTION OF ILLEGAL INTERNATIONAL TRAFFIC IN TOXIC AND DANGEROUS PRODUCTS
AGENDA 21 CHAPTER 20: ENVIRONMENTALLY SOUND MANAGEMENT OF HAZARDOUS WASTES, INCLUDING PREVENTION OF ILLEGAL INTERNATIONAL TRAFFIC IN HAZARDOUS WASTES
AGENDA 21 CHAPTER 21: ENVIRONMENTALLY SOUND MANAGEMENT OF SOLID WASTES AND SEWAGE-RELATED ISSUES
AGENDA 21 CHAPTER 22: SAFE AND ENVIRONMENTALLY SOUND MANAGEMENT OF RADIOACTIVE WASTES
AGENDA 21 CHAPTERS 23-32: MAJOR GROUPS
AGENDA 21 CHAPTER 33: FINANCIAL RESOURCES AND MECHANISMS
A qualitative evaluation of the implementation of Agenda 21 in the
ESCWA region indicates progress in some areas.
However, the physical state of the regional environment provides a
negative picture. Against the background of
deteriorating environmental conditions one would have expected
increased international financial flows to the region.
However, the total ODA percentage from OECD to Egypt, Morocco, the
Syrian Arab Republic, Jordan, Yemen, and
Tunisia registered a sharp decline from 16.3 percent for 1983-1984
to only 8.7 percent for 1993-1994 (source: OECD,
Creditors Reporting System, 1995). The importance of innovative
financing was mentioned in para 33.16 of Agenda 21,
in which it is also mentioned that new ways of generating new
public and private sources should be explored. Such
innovative financing mechanisms may include debt-for-nature swaps
for the highly indebted countries of the region
(Egypt, Jordan, and Yemen). Common interests and complementary
needs of industrial and developed countries must
provide the basic rationale for financing Agenda 21. In such
spirit, cooperation must include not only ODA, but also
trade, debt management, private investment and capital flows,
private sector development, access to technology, and the
strengthening of civil society as a whole.
In terms of sectoral components of sustainable development in the
Arab region as a whole, each country has its own path
based on its specific problems and constraints; hence, there is no
blue print for regional sustainable development at the
macro level. The tentative orders of magnitude of financial
requirements and investment costs to promote a more
environmentally sustainable development are given in the table
below for a selected number of Arab countries. These
figures are based on World Bank estimates. As can be seen, the
investment requirements for sound environment
management range between $58 and $78 billion over the next ten
years. The estimate does not include investment in
energy and water efficiency improvements.
-water pollution,
-hazardous and toxic waste.
1. Environmental institutional capacity building:
staffing,
training, public information, monitoring and laboratory
equipment.
2. Industrial sector clean up: air pollution.
3. Fuel substitution from high to low sulphur fuel
oils, or to
natural gas.
4. Substitution unleaded gasoline for 50% of
consumption.
5. Industrial sector clean up: 6. Full urban and rural coverage of safe water and
sanitation,
including 55% urban coverage of municipal waste water
treatment (above and beyond per capita investment equivalent
to investment levels in the 1980s).
7. Natural resource management activities on 10% of
land
potentially threatened by erosion.
8. Full coverage of safe municipal solid waste
management.
AGENDA 21 CHAPTER 34: TRANSFER OF ENVIRONMENTALLY SOUND TECHNOLOGY, COOPERATION AND CAPACITY-BUILDING
The Arab countries, as other developing countries, have expressed
concern in various international fora at the lack of
environmentally sound technology transfers (ESTs) on a concessional
basis. Chapter 34 of Agenda 21 called for new
policies and programmes to promote and facilitate the transfer of
ESTs along with supportive measures and capacity
building. The transfer of technology for development to the
developing countries, as envisaged in Agenda 21 and other
international agreements, however, faces a series of challenges
under the intellectual property rights provision of the
GATT agreement. It is for the same reason that representatives of
developing countries have been highlighting this
concern in various sessions of the Commission on Sustainable
Development and emphasizing the importance of access to
ESTs in the public domain as well as facilitating transfer of ESTs
through innovative legislative and market mechanisms.
The ESCWA countries lack the means to use economic instruments and
other non-regulatory measures as a flexible and
efficient means for promoting sustainability, to ensure
compatibility between environmental and technological policies.
The measures are intended to provide incentives for industry to
meet environmental standards in the most cost-efficient
way, and to stimulate the transfer, adaptation and development of
environmentally sound technologies and sustainable
practices. As existing technology policies in the region do not
provide strong enough inducements for the widespread
development and use of ESTs, a new policy mix consisting of and
leading to regulatory instruments, economic and fiscal
measures, information dissemination, human resources development,
the establishment of national technical promotion
institutions, and research and development capacities, is in order.
However, the precise approach will depend on national
circumstances.
AGENDA 21 CHAPTER 35: SCIENCE FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
AGENDA 21 CHAPTER 36: PROMOTING EDUCATION, PUBLIC AWARENESS AND TRAINING
AGENDA 21 CHAPTER 37: NATIONAL MECHANISMS AND INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION FOR CAPACITY-BUILDING IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
National capacity building is also covered under sectoral chapters.
Donors: You may wish to describe here how Agenda 21 has influenced your ODA policies in this area.
The Arab Ministerial Declaration on Environment and Development
(initiated by ESCWA in cooperation with the League
of Arab States/Council of Arab Ministers Responsible for the
Environment - CAMRE) and the Regional Action
Programme for Sustainable Development (RAPSD) adopted by CAMRE,
have provided added impetus for Arab regional
cooperation in the implementation of Agenda 21. The Ministerial
Declaration took into consideration the environmental
and socio-economic conditions of the entire region. This, and the
need for cooperation in the follow-up of global
initiatives, namely Agenda 21 of UNCED, was also reflected. The
Declaration covers all policy directions, reaffirms
commitments of all Arab countries to promote sustainable
development, and resolves to implement national plans dealing
with natural resources, environment and sustainable development,
taking into consideration national priorities.
The RAPSD provides a blueprint for action to promote sustainable
development in the Arab region. It is also a timely
response to the major sustainable development issues identified in
the annual meetings of the CAMRE, which, through the
JCEDAR, sets out a concrete course of national action for the Arab
region. It envisages the achievement of 141 tangible
results through 13 priority programmes in line with regional
concerns ranging from desertification, water resources
management, to ESTs. The actions called for in the RAPSD for the
implementation of Agenda 21 may be required at
several levels:
- Regional: to deal with sub-regional and regional issues of a
transboundary nature and common interest, and activities of
capacity building in the coastal area which can be efficiently and
cost-effectively dealt with at sub-regional/ regional levels
in support of national strategies, i.e. desertification,
biodiversity, etc;
- National: to deal with environmental issues which are mainly
national in character such as industrial pollution control,
urbanization, energy and transportation issues;
- Local: for which decentralization from a national to a local
level is essential to manage in a cost-effective way
environmental problems such as water supply and sanitation, poverty
alleviation and local area development.
The RAPSD envisages capacity building at national level through
regional inter-Arab cooperation. Further, it proposes to
promote regional cooperation and combating oil pollution and wastes
at sea. Such cooperation is promoted through the
networks of national institutions responsible for desertification,
marine pollution, indicators, information and awareness,
to enable exchange of experience and knowledge through the exchange
of information and expertise. To
achieve this objective, ESCWA provides capacity building and
technical assistance to promote sustainable development,
through its regional advisory services and its leading coordination
for the promotion of Agenda 21.
AGENDA 21 CHAPTER 38: INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTIONAL ARRANGEMENTS
Please refer to discussion of ESCWA activities in all chapters.
Ch. 38: Brief summary of any particular UN System
response affecting this country/state:
AGENDA 21 CHAPTER 39: INTERNATIONAL LEGAL INSTRUMENTS AND MECHANISMS
Not relevant for ESCWA as an organization.
Ch. 39: International Legal Instruments are covered
under the relevant sectoral chapters. This is a listing of major
agreements/conventions (not already covered) entered into and
relevant to Agenda 21:
AGENDA 21 CHAPTER 40: INFORMATION FOR DECISION-MAKING
2.
International cooperation and trade
3.
Combating poverty
4.
Changing consumption patterns
5.
Demographic dynamics and sustainability
6.
Human health
7.
Human settlements
8.
Integrating E & D in decision-making
9.
Protection of the atmosphere
10.
Integrated planning and management of land resources
11.
Combating deforestation
12.
Combating desertification and drought
13.
Sustainable mountain development
14.
Sustainable agriculture and rural development
15.
Conservation of biological diversity
16.
Biotechnology
17.
Oceans, seas, coastal areas and their living resources
18.
Freshwater resources
19.
Toxic chemicals
20.
Hazardous wastes
21.
Solid wastes
22.
Radioactive wastes
24.
Women in sustainable development
25.
Children and youth
26.
Indigenous people
27.
Non-governmental organizations
28.
Local authorities
29.
Workers and trade unions
30.
Business and industry
31.
Scientific and technological community
32.
Farmers
33.
Financial resources and mechanisms
34.
Technology, cooperation and capacity-building
35.
Science for sustainable development
36.
Education, public awareness and training
37.
International cooperation for capacity-building
38.
International institutional arrangements
39.
International legal instruments
40.
Information for decision-making
Copyright © United Nations
Department of Economic and Social Affairs
Comments and suggestions: esa@un.org
Last updated 1 November 1997